[Blue Blood]

SOILS

Anatolia has a variety of soil types. Nearly 40% of the land, including the Black Sea coast and most of the northeast, is covered by red and gray brown podzols and by brown forest soils. The Aegean and Mediterranean coasts are characterized by mountain soils: Brown forest, terra rossa and rendzina. Chestnut and desert soils are found in Central Anatolia. The southeast has rich chernozems and chestnut-type soils. COASTLINES

Turkey is surrounded by sea on three sides; the Black Sea in the north, the Mediterranean in the south and the Aegean Sea in the west. In the northwest there is also an important internal sea; the Marmara Sea, between the straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus.The name of The Marmara Sea comes from the Marmara Island which is known for the high grade of marble from its quarries.
The Black Sea coastline is 1,595km / 990mi long and the Mediterranean is nearly the same: at 1,577km / 980miles. Because the mountains reach the sea perpendicularly, the Aegean coastline has many curves and is much longer measuring 2,800km / 1,740 miles.
The Marmara Sea occupies an area of 11,350km² / 4,381 sq miles and the coastline is about 1,000km / 621 miles long.
Salinity of the Seas

The Black Sea 1.7% The Marmara Sea 2.2% The Mediterranean Sea 3.8% The Aegean Sea 3.8%

As a country surrounded by seas on 3 sides, Turkey has 159 islands most of which are not even known or inhabited. 109 of these islands are in the Aegean Sea, 26 in the Mediterranean, 23 in the Marmara Sea with only one in the Black Sea.

LAKES

With more than 300 natural and 130 artificial, Turkey is indeed a country of lakes. The total area of the lakes is around 9,250km² / 3,570 sqmiles and nearly 50 of them occupy areas larger than 10km² / 3.8sq miles each. There are also many smaller lakes which are usually not shown on maps.The largest, Lake Van is 3,713km² / 1,433 sq miles and 100m / 328ft deep.
Some lakes are fed by rivers whilst others form rivers by dispersing their excess water. Lakes which lose water predominantly by evaporation develop a build up of mineral salts which make them saltwater.
The freshwater lakes are used for irrigation when their altitudes are higher than the plateaus around them. Lake Beysehir on the Konya plateau is an example of this.
The lakes of Anatolia are not similar to each other either in size or formation. They can be divided roughly into 2 categories.

Natural lakes

a)Tectonic lakes
These lakes were formed during the deformation of the earth's crust. More than 20 of the major lakes in Turkey are of the tectonic formation. Because many of the roads or railways pass by these tectonic lakes it is possible to see many of them while traveling around Turkey.
b)Crater lakes
These volcanic lakes were formed when the bowl-shaped depressions around the orifices of volcanoes were filled with water after the eruptions. Since roads rarely pass through areas of volcanic formation, it is unlikely that many crater lakes of Anatolia are seen.
There are many other types of lake formations which are not included here, such as glacier lakes, naturally dammed lakes and so on. More specific information about lakes which might be encountered while touring Turkey is provided in the Places of Interest Section. The selection of lakes mentioned is related to their interest value to tourists as opposed to their size or formation.

Dams

These were mostly built within the last few decades to obtain energy, to provide irrigation for agriculture, and to provide drinking water to urban areas.
The major power plant dams are the Ataturk, Karakaya and Keban on the Euphrates; the Altinkaya and Hirfanli on the Kizilirmak; the Gokcekaya and Sariyar on the Sakarya; the Demirkopru on the Gediz; the Kemer on the Buyuk Menderes and the Oymapinar and Manavgat on the Manavgat.

MOUNTAINS

Turkey is a country of highlands with an average altitude of 1,130m / 3,700ft. 80% of Anatolia is above 500m / 1,640ft in height which is much higher when compared to other continents. The average height in Asia is 1050m / 3,444ft; in Europe 330m / 1,082ft and in Africa 650m / 2,130ft.Except for a relatively small segment along the Syrian border, Anatolia is part of the great Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt.
Generally, most of the mountain lines in Anatolia lie in the east-west direction. There are two important ranges of mountains in Anatolia: The North Anatolian Mountains along the Black Sea in the north and the Taurus Mountains in the south. Both of them run parallel to the coastline. The North Anatolian Mountains increase in height toward the east, where their highest peak, Kackar Dagi (3,937m / 12,910ft), is found. The Taurus Mountains rise to 3,734m / 12,250ft in the Aladag Chain. Composed mainly of limestone, there are caves, underground streams and potholes.
Anatolia's highest peak is in the east: Agri Dagi (Mount Ararat) 5,165m / 16,940ft.


RIVERS

Throughout history, water has always been a very important element for man in the development of his environment, for agricultural and industrial production, and for transportation. Therefore people prefer to live close to or in areas served by rivers.520 billion cubic m / 680 billion cubic yards of water (rain, snow, etc.) fall annually in Turkey and 32%of this amount forms rivers. Although this is a very large volume of water, not many of the rivers are very long. They are plentiful in number due to the existence of many hills, ranges of mountains, plateaus and plains in the country.
Generally, rivers originate from heights of 1,000-2,000m / 3,280-6,560ft and flow into the sea after 700-800km / 435-500 miles which is a comparatively short distance. Consequently their speed is fast and they carry large amounts of alluviums. These alluviums have contributed to some of the geological formations over the centuries. The harbors of some ancient cities such as Ephesus, Priene or Troy, which once graced shorelines, are present day ruins located a few kilometers inland due to silting up of shores. The lakes of Bafa and Sapanca were once bays before their entrances became closed by alluvium deposits.
In spring, especially in April, the rivers carry the maximum amount of water which is muddy in color because it carries a lot of soil. The season in which the minimum water is carried is the autumn, especially September.
The majority of the rivers in Anatolia are not navigable, having irregular, shallow beds and seasonal depth changes.
Often many rivers are named according to their colors; Kizilirmak (red river), Aksu (white water), Bozcay (gray river), sometimes with the names of places or surrounding things; Degirmendere (mill river), Koprucay (bridge river), or with some adjectives describing the nature of the river; Delicay (crazy river), Cehennemdere (hell river), Ikizdere(twin rivers).
Most Turkish rivers originate within the country's borders, a feature which gives Turkey a strategic power because there is no risk of water limitation by its neighbors.

Rivers of Anatolia

The Euphrates and Tigris join together in Iraq and flow into the Persian Gulf. Less than half of the Euphrates and one third of the Tigris are within Anatolia today.
The Kizilirmak (Halys) is the longest river originating and flowing within the borders of Turkey; 1,355km / 842 miles.
Yesilirmak and Sakarya are the longest rivers after the Kizilirmak, and flow into the Black Sea.
The Aras and Kurucay flow beyond Turkey´s borders into the Caspian Sea in western Asia.
The Susurluk, Biga and Gonen flow into the Marmara Sea.
The Gediz, Buyuk Menderes, Kucuk Menderes and Meric flow into the Aegean Sea.
The Seyhan, Ceyhan and Goksu flow into the Mediterranean Sea.

CLIMATE

Because of the geographical formation of the country with mountains that run parallel to the coast, Anatolia is a focal point of contrasting climates.While in coastal areas winters are mild and summers are moderately hot, the inland areas experience extremes of temperature. The hot summers have high daytime temperatures with generally cool nights and the cold winters have limited precipitation with frost occurring on more than 100 days during the year.
Average Daytime Temperatures

Centigrade Fahrenheit January 9 48 February 9 48 March 11 52 April 16 62 May 21 70June 26 78 July 29 84 August 29 84 September 25 76 October 21 70 November 15 60December 11 52

In the Mediterranean, Aegean and Southern Marmara regions, the general Mediterranean climate is dominant; summers are hot and dry, winters are mild and rainy. Frosts are rare and snowfall is almost unknown.
On the Northern coast of the Marmara Sea, the temperatures are lower.
The Black Sea region, enjoys mild winters and a fair amount of rainfall throughout the year.
In Central Anatolia, a typical plateau climate prevails where the summers are hot with minimum precipitation, and winters are cold with heavy and lasting snows. Villages may be isolated by severe snowstorms.
Eastern Anatolia is rugged country with higher elevations, a more severe climate and greater precipitation than the central plateau. The climate of this region is most inhospitable. Summers are hot and extremely dry, winters are bitterly cold. Spring and autumn are both subject to sudden hot and cold spells.
The rainfall is maximum in the middle and eastern coasts of the Black Sea and the western part of the Mediterranean. It is minimum around Lake Tuz and in Konya Plateau. Except for these areas and the Central Anatolia, the rainfall is average all over Turkey.

[Blue Blood]

Van Lake

In the times of ancient Greece it was known as Thospitis Lacus, or Arsissa Lacus, which is derived from the Urartian city of Van, or ancient Chauon. Lake Van (Van Golu in Turkish) is the largest lake in Turkey and the second largest in the Middle East. It's also the biggest sodium water lake in the world. The lake lies on the high grounds of Eastern Anatolian region near the border with Iran. It was formed by a crater caused by a volcanic explosion of Nemrud mount (last eruption in 1440 AD) near the province of Van. It covers an area of 1,434 square miles (3,713 square km) and is more than 74 miles (119 km) across at its widest point. It's elevation from the sea level is 1,646 meters, deepest point is 457 meters.


The water is not very suitable for drinking or irrigation because of its high salinity, and only limited species of fresh water fish (Darekh, a species of herring ) can live. The lake is fed by rainfall, melt water of ice, and small rivers. During winter months the lake has the lowest level, and rise after the spring with melting snow from surrounding mountains. The difference of level between summer and winter is about 20 inches (50 cm) per year, depending on the climate. The surrounding has the typical fauna of the region. For irrigation of the fields farmers usually use fresh water from streams feeding the lake. Pollution caused mainly by irregular drainage system of the surrounding cities and land erosion are the main threats for the lake.
Lake Van has a triangular shape and is divided into two sections; smaller and shallower northern tip, and the main body of water in the south. Northern shores are generally steep and full of cliffs and the southern shores are generally eroded plains. There are four small islands in the southern part of the lake: Akdamar, Carpanak, Adir and Kus islands. All of these islands were declared as archaeological sites in 1990. Especially Akdamar Island is a popular one amongst visitors because of a well preserved Armenian church of the Holy Cross from 10th century, it's connected to the land by small boats' service. Also a regular passenger boat operates between some coastal towns, and a train ferry connection from Tatvan to Van city, on the main railroad between Istanbul-Tehran.
Some other important lakes of Turkey are; Tuz, Bafa, Beysehir, Aksehir, Egridir, Burdur, Iznik, Ulubat, Kus, Sapanca, Aci, Hazar, Yedigol, and many Dam lakes.

[Blue Blood]

Mount Ararat

Ararat is located at Agri in eastern Turkey near the Russian and Iranian borders. As the crow flies, it is about 250 kilometers east of Erzurum, 130 kilometers southeast of Kars, and 160 kilometers north of Van. The main road between Turkey and Iran goes from Erzurum through Dogubayazit (just south of Ararat) to Tabriz. The summit of Mt. Ararat is 5,165 meters above sea level. It is higher than any mountain in the continental United States except for Alaska or in Europe outside the Caucasus. Ararat is a dormant volcano; the last eruption was on June 2, 1840. At present the upper third of the mountain is covered with snow all the time; the last hundred meters of snow at the top have turned to ice. For climbers on the mountain, fresh running water is available after the sun has been up a while to melt the snow, but it is cut off in the late afternoon when cold air has overcome the heat of the sun. Below the snow the slopes are covered with great blocks of black basalt rock, some as large as village houses.
Over the years various groups have explored Ararat in the hopes of finding remains of Noah's Ark. Both Josephus in about 70 A.D. and Marco Polo about 1300 A.D. mention its existence on the mountain, but their reports are based on others' accounts. Josephus remarks that its remains are on display for all to see without need of an organized exploration. In more recent years many groups have hunted for it there. The possibility that ancient fables are historical fact is intriguing, and each new discovery of truth in previously discredited records gives additional strength to continuing the search for archaeological confirmation.
However, the problems of establishing exactly what the biblical record in this case means are serious ones that need to be settled even before one accepts this particular high mountain as the right place to look for the ark. In itself even that ignores the possibility that Noah and his family used up the ark in bits and pieces to build their new homes, a fate that has destroyed many other famous structures in the Near East since.
The story of Noah's ark, as it is told in the Bible, is a reworking of an earlier Babylonian myth recorded in the Gilgamesh Epic. The hero of the earlier version is one Utnapishtim, the favorite of Ea, the god of wisdom. It seems probable that the Babylonian story was based on an unusually devastating flood in the Euphrates (Firat) River basin, and that the ark in it grounded on the slopes of one of the Zagros mountains. The biblical word that we read as "Ararat" could as well be read "Urartu"; the text has merely "rrt" and the proper vowels must be supplied.
Urartu was the name of a historical kingdom, but the word also meant "a land far away" and "a place in the north." So, while Buyuk Agri Dagi is a spectacular mountain and not a difficult one to climb for those experienced in high altitude exercise, it still seems less than likely that Noah's Ark will be found there. That doubt does not detract from the continuing interest in it, nor from the important achievements of archaeologists in deepening our understanding of the Old Testament.

On the north side, Ararat has its roots in the Araxes (Aras) River valley. There it rises from the valley elevation of about 760 meters above sea level. In that area the Araxes River is the border demarcation between Turkey and Russia. The top of the mountain is only about 30 kilometers from the border. For some years both the Turkish and the Soviet governments have been touchy about foreigners exploring on Ararat because of military security precautions. Therefore it was difficult to get permission to climb it for sports fans. On 1st of November 2004 Ararat Mountain and surroundings were declared as the 35th National Park of Turkey by the Government so it's believed that it will attract more visitors and help to the local economy as well. So far there are no ski resorts on the mountain but you never know, maybe one day... The nearest one is on Bubi Mountain which is open from December till April.
If one has that permission, it is best to plan the trip starting from Dogubayazit on the south, a saving of more than a kilometer in climbing. One can start from Dogubayazit by jeep or sturdy station wagon, traveling across the valley to the base of the mountain where pre-engaged local guides will meet the party. The average hiker who is experienced in high altitudes can make the climb in three days, but it is better to plan four days to allow for exploration of the summit. Late August is the best season.

[Blue Blood]

Euphrates River

The Euphrates river (Firat in Turkish) rises from Eastern Anatolia, flows generally southward through southeastern Turkey around Sanliurfa, Adiyaman and Gaziantep provinces, goes across the border into Syria and Iraq passing from Mesopotamia, and empties into the Persian Gulf in Basra after joining with the Tigris river in Shatt al-Arab. Its total lenght is approximately 2.800 km (1.740 mi), out of which 971 km (603 mi) are in Turkey. In addition to its main watercourse, the Euphrates River has two headwaters named as Karasu and Murad (ancient Arsanias) rivers which join somewhere near Keban district of Elazig province, where stands the Keban Dam as one of the biggest in Turkey (210 m - 689 ft high) built between 1965-1975. Another big dam is Karakaya (173 m - 568 ft high) which was opened in 1987 within GAP Project, and other dams are Birecik and Karkamis. But the largest dam of Turkey in size, and one of the biggest dams in the world, is Ataturk Dam which is also built on the Euphrates river near Sanliurfa province between 1983-1992; it's 169 m (554 ft) high. All of these dams were constructed to provide hydroelectric power to this region of Turkey, provide water for irrigation, and help with flood control. These dams have very large and distinct reservoirs as well. The water from the Ataturk Dam is passing through two parallel 7,62 m (25 ft) wide and 26,4 km (16,4 mi) long Urfa tunnels and used for the irrigation of the agricultural fields in Urfa-Harran, Mardin-Ceylanpinar, Siverek-Hilvan, and upper Mardin areas.

Besides Karasu and Murat, other tributaries of the Euphrates are Tohma, Peri, Calti and Munzur rivers. Average elevations along the Euphrates range from 760 m (2.500 ft) for the lowlands to more than 1.500 m (5.000 ft) for the plateaus and mountains. Its water regime depends heavily upon winter rains and Spring snowmelt in the mountains; it grows between March-June when the snow in the mountains melt, and reduces its water flow between July-January when there isn't much rain due to the typical continental subtropical climate (hot and dry summers, cold and snowy winters).

The agriculture along the Euphrates holds an important part in the economy of the region, which comes to a halt during the winter because of freezing temperatures and snow. Fishing is another important income for the locals living around the Euphrates. As for the fish and other animals in the river and marshes, we can count the carp, barbels, catfish, spiny eel, frogs, toads and turtles. Several plants grow near the rivers in the region, such as oak, pistachio, ash forests, cattail, mardi reed and other reeds, camel thorn, prosopis, willow, popler, date palm, and some wildflowers.

Many ancient cities flourished on the banks of Euphrates river during the Hittite and Urartu periods, Zeugma city was one of them. The Euphrates, such as Tigris, is a biblical river as well. It was known as Perat and mentioned in the Book of Genesis (Genesis 2:10-14) as one of the four rivers branching off the river flowing out of the Garden of Eden. These four rivers were Pishon, Gihon, Hiddekel (Tigris) and Perat (Euphrates).

[Blue Blood]

Tigris River

Tigris river (Dicle in Turkish) is one of the biggest rivers of Turkey together with Euphrates (Firat in Turkish). Tigris rises from the mountains near Elazig province in eastern Anatolia, divides into several smaller rivers while passing from southeastern Anatolia, goes into Iraq passing across the border near Cizre, then joins with Euphrates in Shatt al-Arab just below Qurna in Mesopotamia, and empties into the Persian Gulf in Basra. It's approximately 1,900 km (1,180 mi) long, out of which 523 km (325 mi) are in Turkey. Important tributaries of the Tigris are Batman, Garzan, Botan and Habur rivers in Turkey, and Greater Zab and Lesser Zab rivers in Iraq. Its average water flow if 360 m3 (95,100 gallons) per second; around mid-September the flow drops to 55 m3 (14,530 gallons) per second because of dry summers in the region, and in March it goes up to 2,263 m3 (597,821 gallons) per second because of the winter precipitations and then snowmelting in the Spring. Tigris is shorter than Euphrates in lenght but it carries more water when both rivers are compared, thus it causes lots of floodings especially on the Iraqi side.
There are several hydroelectric power plants on the Tigris, such as Kralkizi (built between 1985-1997), Batman (1986-1999), Dicle (1986-1997) and Ilisu (under construction) Dams. Besides producing electricity, these dams provide water for irrigating agricultural fields in the arid GAP area as well. There are also several dams built on Tigris on the Iraqi side, Mosul Dam being the largest dam in Iraq.
According to the Book of Genesis, the Tigris (named as Hiddekel) was one of the four rivers branching off the river flowing out of the Garden of Eden (Genesis 2:10), and that the prophet Daniel received his visions near Hiddekel (Daniel 10:4). These four rivers were Pishon, Gihon, Hiddekel (Tigris) and Perat (Euphrates).