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Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire is also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, for it was in fact a continuation of the Roman Empire into its eastern part. At its greatest size, during the 500's AD, Byzantine included parts of southern and eastern Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa.
The Byzantine people called themselves Romans although they were actually descendants of various ancient peoples and they spoke Greek. The word Byzantine, in fact, comes from "Byzantium," which is the Greek name for a city on the Bosphorus. The Greeks colonized the area first, in the mid-600's BC, even before Alexander the Great brought his troops into Anatolia (334 BC). Greek culture continued its influence long after the region became part of the Roman Empire, in the 100's BC. But it was when Roman emperor Constantine the Great moved the capital of the Empire from Rome to Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople (Istanbul today), in 330 AD, that the Byzantine Empire really began. It lasted over 1000 years, ending finally in 1453, when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul.
Christianity had a strong influence on Byzantine art, music, and architecture. Since Constantinople was the political center of the Empire, it also was the educational center, where future government officials learned to read and write the language of ancient Greece. Thus this period produced remarkable works in history as well as fine poetry, and much religious prose. All the visual arts flourished, too. Most of the artists worked as servants of the court or belonged to religious orders, and they remained anonymous. Ivory carvings, Byzantine crosses, and "illuminations," or small manuscript paintings, attest to their skill. Almost all that survives of the Byzantine architecture are its churches, with their glorious frescoes and mosaics. With Hagia Sophia as an example, their architects and artisans reached heady heights of magnificence, indeed.
For 1100 years, the Byzantine's were able to maintain control of their empire, although somewhat tenuously at times; the Empire's expansion and prosperity were balanced by internal religious schisms (such as Nika Riot) and recurring wars with enemies from the outside. Finally, weakened by recurring waves of attack, the Ottomans overcame the exhausted Byzantines and a new era of leadership began. The Byzantine Empire, however, had left its mark on the culture, never to be entirely erased even after the Conquest.

Byzantine Emperors

Year / Emperor

323–337 Constantine I (The Great)
337–361 Constantius
361–363 Julian (The Apostate)
363–364 Jovianos
364–378 Valens
379–395 Theodosius I (The Great)
395–408 Arcadius
408–450 Theodosius II
450–457 Marcianus
457–474 Leo I
474 Leo II
474–491 Zeno
491–518 Anastasius I
518–527 Justin I
527–565 Justinian I (The Great)
565–578 Justin II
578–582 Tiberius, Constantinus
582–602 Mauritius
602–610 Phocas I
610–641 Heraclius I
641 Constantine III
641 Heracleon
641–668 Constans II
668–685 Constantine IV
685–695 Justinian II
695–698 Leontius II
698–705 Tiberius III, Apsimar
705–711 Justinian II (restored)
711–713 Philippicus
713–715 Anastasius II
715–717 Theodosius III
717–741 Leo III, the Isaurian
741–775 Constantine V, Kopronymus
775–780 Leo IV
780–797 Constantine VI
797–802 Irene
802–811 Nicephorus I
811 Stauracius
811–813 Michael I, Rhangabé
813–820 Leo V, the Armenian
820–829 Michael II
829–842 Theophilus II
842–867 Michael III
842–866 Bardas
867 Theophilus II
Macedonian Emperors
867–886 Basil I, the Macedonian
886–912 Leo VI, the Wise
912–913 Alexander III
913–959 Constantine VII, Porphyrogenitus
919–944 Romanus I, Lecapenus
959–963 Romanus II
963–969 Nicephorus II, Phocas
969–976 John I, Tzimisces
976–1025 Basil II, Bulgaroktonus
1025–28 Constantine VIII
1028–50 Zoë
1028–34 Romanus III, Argyrus
1034–41 Michael IV, the Paphlagonian
1041–42 Michael V, Calaphates
1042–54 Constantine IX, Monomachus
1054–56 Theodora
1056–57 Michael VI, Stratioticus
1057–59 Isaac I, Comnenus
1059–67 Constantine X, Dukas
1067 Andronicus
1067 Constantine XI
1067–71 Romanus IV, Diogenes
1071–78 Michael VII, Parapinakes
1078–81 Nicephorus III, Botaniates
1081–1118 Alexius I, Comnenus
1118–43 John IV, Calus
1143–80 Manuel I
1180–83 Alexius II
1182–85 Andronicus I
1185–95 Isaac II, Angelus-Comnenus
1195–1203 Alexius III, Angelus
1203–04 Alexius IV
1204 Alexius V, Dukas
Latin Emperors (Crusaders)
1204–05 Baldwin I
1205–16 Henry VI
1216–17 Peter de Courtenay
1218–28 Robert de Courtenay
1228–61 Baldwin II
Nicaean Emperors
1206–22 Theodore I, Lascaris
1222–54 John Dukas Vatatzes
1254–59 Theodore II, Lascaris
1258–61 John IV, Lascaris
The Paleologi
1261–82 Michael VIII
1282–1328 Andronicus II
1295–1320 Michael IX
1328–41 Andronicus III
1341–47 John V
1347–54 John VI, Cantacuzene
1355–76 John V (restored)
1376–79 Andronicus IV
1379–91 John V (restored)
1390 John VII
1391–1425 Manuel II
1425–48 John VIII
1448–53 Constantine XI, Dragases; until the conquest of Constantinopolis.

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Constantine the Great

In 324 A.D., after a long and bloody battle, Roman Emperor Constantine the Great defeated his final rival Licinius in the hills near Byzantium (Istanbul). Being a noble-hearted conqueror, Constantine spared the treacherous Licinius's life. This victory had repercussions that were to affect the city's development enormously. First, Constantine adopted Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. Second, he chose Byzantium as his new Christian capital. Although, there is scholarly debate on how "Christian " Constantine's rule actually was, as some scholars believe that he continued to pay heed to mythological divinities and pagan ceremonies. This was a major shift, as the former capital of the Roman Empire had been Rome, the center of Pagan worship. The city was officially dedicated as "New Rome" in 330 AD; it soon was unofficially christened Constantinople. The emperor shocked his courtiers by marking much greater boundaries than they expected around what had been the rather provincial Byzantine, so that soon it had quadrupled in size. Asked why he did so, he responded that he was following an invisible, presumably angelic guide.
With his typical energy, Constantine not only enlarged but also strengthened and beautified the city. For the next ten years, he looked toward the moral, political, and economic welfare of the citizens of his Empire and designated his sons as future rulers. When he was about to march against the Persian army in May of 337, he suddenly became ill and died, shortly after being baptized.
Constantine certainly earned the "Great" after his name. The history of the world was set on a new course when he made Christianity - which until that time had suffered bloody persecution - the state religion. This was hardly an imperative move since Christians were by far the minority at the time. Thus Constantine's decision depended less on general conditions at the time than on his own personal consideration. In 325 he assembled and attended the CouncilNicea where the Nicene Creed was formulated. It remains one of the basics of Christianity. Constantine was not only the first Christian Emperor, but he was the greatest of all Roman Emperors.
His great city and Empire lasted until 1453 when it was conquered by the Ottoman sultan Mehmet II.

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Byzantine Emperors, Theodosius I, II and III

Theodosius I

Known as The Great, (347-395) he was the son of the Spanish general Flavius Theodosius. He was working as a military governor in Moesia when his father was executed by Valentinian in 376. After his father's death, Theodosius withdrew from military life until 379, after which emperor Valens is defeated and killed by the Visigoths at Adrianople (Edirne) in 378 and emperor Gratian named him Augustus (co-ruler) of the East. In 381, he signed for an alliance with the Visigoths to keep them under control, who had been invading areas of the Empire since 375 instead of becoming part of the Roman Army.
In 380, he issued a law ordering all citizens to believe in the Nicene Creed of the Council in 325 to be considered Catholic Christians. He severely acted against paganism like closing and even destroying temples and ending the Olympic Games. In 381 he convened the second Ecumenical Council in Istanbul (First Council of Constantinople). In 390 AD he brought the carved from granite from Temple of Luxor in Karnak to Egyptian Obelisk Istanbul and had it erected in the Hippodrome. In 391 and 392, Theodosius prohibited sacrifices and worshiping of pagan gods, making Christianity the only religion of the state. In 394, he fought his pagan enemies and won. Theodosius became ill and died in 395. He divided the Roman Empire between his two sons.


Theodosius II

Ruled between 408-450, he was the son and successor of Arcadius. He preferred the study of theology and astronomy to public affairs leaving it to his sister Pulcheria and his wife Eudocia. The most important political events of his reign were the establishment of Valentinian III as emperor in the West in 425 and the raids into the Empire by the Huns under Attila. In 431, Theodosius summoned the Council of Ephesus, which condemned Nestorianism, and in 449 he convoked and upheld the Robber Synod, which declared the orthodoxy of Eutychianism. He also founded the Constantinople University in 425, declared the Theodosian Code (Codex Theodosianus) in 438, and restored the City Walls. Marcian, His brother-in-law, succeeded him when he died in 450 for a riding accident.

Theodosius III

Ruled between 715-717, he was a tax collector at Adramyttium (modern Edremit in the Aegean region) and became an imperial candidate by troops revolted against Anastasius II. He entered Constantinople (Istanbul) as an Emperor in 715 after a siege of six months, deposing Anastasius. He replaced the image of the Sixth Ecumenical Synod. In 716 he signed a treaty with the Bulgarians against Arab attacks on Constantinople, establishing the border in Thrace. In 717 Leo III rebelled against Theodosius' rule and captured his son in Nicomedia (modern Kocaeli), so Theodosius chose to resign the throne. Along with his son, he subsequently entered the clergy and became bishop of Ephesus, where he's buried.

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Justinian I

Justinian was one of the most famous and successful emperors of the ByzantineConstantine I. He was born in Ilyricum (near Skopje in Macedonia) in 482 or 483 AD. In 523 he married Theodora, a scandalous dancer thus he was criticized a lot, and ascended to the throne in 527 AD after the death of Justin I. After becoming an emperor, he fought against the Persians between 528-530 who invaded Mesopotamia and attacked on the Byzantine lands, and he stopped them thanks to one of his great commanders of the army, Belisarius. It was under his reign when Nika Riot destroyed the city and most of its important monuments including Hagia Sophia Church, killing over 30.000 people in five days of urban warfare. Justinian managed to end the riot with a great difficulty and than he dedicated himself on the reconstruction of Constantinople and its monuments; Hagia Sophia church, Hagia Irene church, Underground cistern were all built under his rule.
In 533 AD Justinian sent his army to Africa under the command of Belisarius to get rid of the Vandal Kingdom which caused the Byzantines many problems, and he succeeded. In 535 AD he sent his army to Italy with his most favorite commander to end the incapable government of Theodahad, landing in Sicily and advancing all the way to Rome and Ravenna fighting against the Goths until 540. Afterwards another war broke out with Persians in the east, who attacked on the Byzantines and captured Antioch. The war went on until finally Justinian signed a peace pact with Persians in 555 AD.
As for the interior affairs, Justinian supported the Roman Law even though Byzantine population were largely pro-Greek. He established the Justinian Code (Codex Justinianus) in 529 AD uniting all valid imperial laws under one and thus founding the base of almost all legal systems in Europe. He also introduced the silk-worm culture to Europe. But on the other hand, his passion for building great monuments such as Hagia Sophia put the Byzantine treasure under stress and this brought high taxes damaging the trade and industry. Same thing happened with a heavy war taxation to support his war campaigns.
Emperor Justinian died in 565 AD at the age of 83, after reigning for 38 years. He was succeeded by his nephew Justin II. Justinian was buried at the Church of the Holy Apostles in today's Fatih district, which was plundered by the Crusaders and later destroyed by earthquakes.

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The Nika Revolt

On January 1, 532 an insurrection broke out unexpectedly in Byzantium (Istanbul) among the populace, and, contrary to expectation, it proved to be a very serious affair in the history of Byzantine Empire, and ended in great harm to the people and to the senate.
In every city the population has been divided for a long time past into the Blue and the Green factions; but within comparatively recent times it has come about that, for the sake of these names and the seats which the rival factions occupy in watching the games in the Hippodrome, they spend their money and abandon their bodies to the most cruel tortures, and even do not think it unworthy to die a most shameful death. And they fight against their opponents knowing not for what end they imperil themselves, but knowing well that, even if they overcome their enemy the fight, the conclusion of the matter for them will be to be carried off straight away to the prison, and finally, after suffering extreme torture, to be destroyed. So there grows up in them against their fellow men a hostility which has no cause, and at no time does it cease or disappear, for it gives place neither to the ties of marriage nor of relationship nor of friendship, and the case is the same even though those who differ with respect to these colors be brothers or any other kin.
At this time the officers of the city administration in Byzantium were leading away to death some of the rioters. But the members of the two factions conspiring together and declaring a truce with each other, seized the prisoners and then straightway entered the prison and released all those who were in confinement there. Fire was applied to the city as if it had fallen under the hand of an enemy. The emperor and his consort , with a few members of the senate shut themselves up in the palace and remained quietly there. Now the watch-word which the populace passed to one another was Nika [i.e., "Conquer"].
On the fifth day of the insurrection in the late afternoon the Emperor Justinian gave orders to Hypatius and Pompeius, nephews of the late emperor, Anastasius, to go home as quickly as possible, either because he suspected that some plot was being matured by them against his own person, or, it may be, because destiny brought them to this. But they feared that the people would force them to the throne (as in fact fell out), and they said that they would be doing wrong if they should abandon their sovereign when he found himself in such danger. When the Emperor Justinian heard this, he inclined still more to his suspicion, and he bade them quit the palace instantly.
On the following day at sunrise it became known to the people that both men bad quit the palace where they had been staying. So the whole population ran to them, and they declared Hypatius emperor and prepared to lead him to the market place to assume the power. But the wife of Hypatius, Mary, a discreet woman, who had the greatest reputation for prudence, laid hold of her husband and would not let go, but cried out with loud lamentation and with entreaties to all her kinsmen that the people were leading him on the road to death. But since the throng overpowered her, she unwillingly released her husband, and he by no will of his own came to the Forum of Constantine, where they summoned him to the throne.
The emperor and his court were deliberating as to whether it would be better for them if they remained or if they took to flight in the ships. And many opinions were expressed favoring either course. And the Empress Theodora also spoke to the following effect: "My opinion then is that the present time, above all others, is inopportune for flight, even though it bring safety. For one who has been an emperor it is unendurable to be a fugitive. May I never be separated from this purple, and may I not live that day on which those who meet me shall not address me as mistress. If, now, it is your wish to save yourself, O Emperor, there is no difficulty. For we have much money, and there is the sea, here the boats. However consider whether it will not come about after you have been saved that you would gladly exchange that safety for death. For as for myself, I approve a certain ancient saying that royalty is a good burial-shroud.". When the queen had spoken thus, all were filled with boldness, and, turning their thoughts towards resistance, they began to consider how they might be able to defend themselves if any hostile force should come against them. All the hopes of the emperor were centred upon Belisarius and Mundus, of whom the former, Belisarius, had recently returned from the Persian war bringing with him a following which was both powerful and imposing, and in particular he had a great number of spearmen and guards who bad received their training in battles and the perils of warfare.
When Hypatius reached the Hippodrome, he went up immediately to where the emperor is accustomed to take his place and seated himself on the royal throne from which the emperor was always accustomed to view the equestrian and athletic contests. And from the palace Mundus went out through the gate which, from the circling descent, has been given the name of the Snail. Belisarius, with difficulty and not without danger and great exertion, made his way over ground covered by ruins and half-burned buildings, and ascended to the stadium. Concluding that he must go against the populace who had taken their stand in the Hippodrome - a vast multitude crowding each other in great disorder - he drew his sword from its sheath and, commanding the others to do likewise, with a shout be advanced upon them at a run. But the populace, who were standing in a mass and not in order, at the sight of armored soldiers who had a great reputation for bravery and experience in war, and seeing that they struck out with their swords unsparingly, beat a hasty retreat. Mundus straightway made a sally into the Hippodrome through the entrance which they call the Gate of Death. Then indeed from both sides the partisans of Hypatius were assailed with might and main and destroyed. There perished among the populace on that day more than thirty thousand. The soldiers killed both Hypatius and Pompeius on the following day and threw bodies into the sea. This was the end of the insurrection in Byzantium.