[Blue Blood]

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire is also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, for it was in fact a continuation of the Roman Empire into its eastern part. At its greatest size, during the 500's AD, Byzantine included parts of southern and eastern Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa.
The Byzantine people called themselves Romans although they were actually descendants of various ancient peoples and they spoke Greek. The word Byzantine, in fact, comes from "Byzantium," which is the Greek name for a city on the Bosphorus. The Greeks colonized the area first, in the mid-600's BC, even before Alexander the Great brought his troops into Anatolia (334 BC). Greek culture continued its influence long after the region became part of the Roman Empire, in the 100's BC. But it was when Roman emperor Constantine the Great moved the capital of the Empire from Rome to Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople (Istanbul today), in 330 AD, that the Byzantine Empire really began. It lasted over 1000 years, ending finally in 1453, when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul.
Christianity had a strong influence on Byzantine art, music, and architecture. Since Constantinople was the political center of the Empire, it also was the educational center, where future government officials learned to read and write the language of ancient Greece. Thus this period produced remarkable works in history as well as fine poetry, and much religious prose. All the visual arts flourished, too. Most of the artists worked as servants of the court or belonged to religious orders, and they remained anonymous. Ivory carvings, Byzantine crosses, and "illuminations," or small manuscript paintings, attest to their skill. Almost all that survives of the Byzantine architecture are its churches, with their glorious frescoes and mosaics. With Hagia Sophia as an example, their architects and artisans reached heady heights of magnificence, indeed.
For 1100 years, the Byzantine's were able to maintain control of their empire, although somewhat tenuously at times; the Empire's expansion and prosperity were balanced by internal religious schisms (such as Nika Riot) and recurring wars with enemies from the outside. Finally, weakened by recurring waves of attack, the Ottomans overcame the exhausted Byzantines and a new era of leadership began. The Byzantine Empire, however, had left its mark on the culture, never to be entirely erased even after the Conquest.

Byzantine Emperors

Year / Emperor

323–337 Constantine I (The Great)
337–361 Constantius
361–363 Julian (The Apostate)
363–364 Jovianos
364–378 Valens
379–395 Theodosius I (The Great)
395–408 Arcadius
408–450 Theodosius II
450–457 Marcianus
457–474 Leo I
474 Leo II
474–491 Zeno
491–518 Anastasius I
518–527 Justin I
527–565 Justinian I (The Great)
565–578 Justin II
578–582 Tiberius, Constantinus
582–602 Mauritius
602–610 Phocas I
610–641 Heraclius I
641 Constantine III
641 Heracleon
641–668 Constans II
668–685 Constantine IV
685–695 Justinian II
695–698 Leontius II
698–705 Tiberius III, Apsimar
705–711 Justinian II (restored)
711–713 Philippicus
713–715 Anastasius II
715–717 Theodosius III
717–741 Leo III, the Isaurian
741–775 Constantine V, Kopronymus
775–780 Leo IV
780–797 Constantine VI
797–802 Irene
802–811 Nicephorus I
811 Stauracius
811–813 Michael I, Rhangabé
813–820 Leo V, the Armenian
820–829 Michael II
829–842 Theophilus II
842–867 Michael III
842–866 Bardas
867 Theophilus II
Macedonian Emperors
867–886 Basil I, the Macedonian
886–912 Leo VI, the Wise
912–913 Alexander III
913–959 Constantine VII, Porphyrogenitus
919–944 Romanus I, Lecapenus
959–963 Romanus II
963–969 Nicephorus II, Phocas
969–976 John I, Tzimisces
976–1025 Basil II, Bulgaroktonus
1025–28 Constantine VIII
1028–50 Zoë
1028–34 Romanus III, Argyrus
1034–41 Michael IV, the Paphlagonian
1041–42 Michael V, Calaphates
1042–54 Constantine IX, Monomachus
1054–56 Theodora
1056–57 Michael VI, Stratioticus
1057–59 Isaac I, Comnenus
1059–67 Constantine X, Dukas
1067 Andronicus
1067 Constantine XI
1067–71 Romanus IV, Diogenes
1071–78 Michael VII, Parapinakes
1078–81 Nicephorus III, Botaniates
1081–1118 Alexius I, Comnenus
1118–43 John IV, Calus
1143–80 Manuel I
1180–83 Alexius II
1182–85 Andronicus I
1185–95 Isaac II, Angelus-Comnenus
1195–1203 Alexius III, Angelus
1203–04 Alexius IV
1204 Alexius V, Dukas
Latin Emperors (Crusaders)
1204–05 Baldwin I
1205–16 Henry VI
1216–17 Peter de Courtenay
1218–28 Robert de Courtenay
1228–61 Baldwin II
Nicaean Emperors
1206–22 Theodore I, Lascaris
1222–54 John Dukas Vatatzes
1254–59 Theodore II, Lascaris
1258–61 John IV, Lascaris
The Paleologi
1261–82 Michael VIII
1282–1328 Andronicus II
1295–1320 Michael IX
1328–41 Andronicus III
1341–47 John V
1347–54 John VI, Cantacuzene
1355–76 John V (restored)
1376–79 Andronicus IV
1379–91 John V (restored)
1390 John VII
1391–1425 Manuel II
1425–48 John VIII
1448–53 Constantine XI, Dragases; until the conquest of Constantinopolis.

[Blue Blood]

Constantine the Great

In 324 A.D., after a long and bloody battle, Roman Emperor Constantine the Great defeated his final rival Licinius in the hills near Byzantium (Istanbul). Being a noble-hearted conqueror, Constantine spared the treacherous Licinius's life. This victory had repercussions that were to affect the city's development enormously. First, Constantine adopted Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. Second, he chose Byzantium as his new Christian capital. Although, there is scholarly debate on how "Christian " Constantine's rule actually was, as some scholars believe that he continued to pay heed to mythological divinities and pagan ceremonies. This was a major shift, as the former capital of the Roman Empire had been Rome, the center of Pagan worship. The city was officially dedicated as "New Rome" in 330 AD; it soon was unofficially christened Constantinople. The emperor shocked his courtiers by marking much greater boundaries than they expected around what had been the rather provincial Byzantine, so that soon it had quadrupled in size. Asked why he did so, he responded that he was following an invisible, presumably angelic guide.
With his typical energy, Constantine not only enlarged but also strengthened and beautified the city. For the next ten years, he looked toward the moral, political, and economic welfare of the citizens of his Empire and designated his sons as future rulers. When he was about to march against the Persian army in May of 337, he suddenly became ill and died, shortly after being baptized.
Constantine certainly earned the "Great" after his name. The history of the world was set on a new course when he made Christianity - which until that time had suffered bloody persecution - the state religion. This was hardly an imperative move since Christians were by far the minority at the time. Thus Constantine's decision depended less on general conditions at the time than on his own personal consideration. In 325 he assembled and attended the CouncilNicea where the Nicene Creed was formulated. It remains one of the basics of Christianity. Constantine was not only the first Christian Emperor, but he was the greatest of all Roman Emperors.
His great city and Empire lasted until 1453 when it was conquered by the Ottoman sultan Mehmet II.

[Blue Blood]

Byzantine Emperors, Theodosius I, II and III

Theodosius I

Known as The Great, (347-395) he was the son of the Spanish general Flavius Theodosius. He was working as a military governor in Moesia when his father was executed by Valentinian in 376. After his father's death, Theodosius withdrew from military life until 379, after which emperor Valens is defeated and killed by the Visigoths at Adrianople (Edirne) in 378 and emperor Gratian named him Augustus (co-ruler) of the East. In 381, he signed for an alliance with the Visigoths to keep them under control, who had been invading areas of the Empire since 375 instead of becoming part of the Roman Army.
In 380, he issued a law ordering all citizens to believe in the Nicene Creed of the Council in 325 to be considered Catholic Christians. He severely acted against paganism like closing and even destroying temples and ending the Olympic Games. In 381 he convened the second Ecumenical Council in Istanbul (First Council of Constantinople). In 390 AD he brought the carved from granite from Temple of Luxor in Karnak to Egyptian Obelisk Istanbul and had it erected in the Hippodrome. In 391 and 392, Theodosius prohibited sacrifices and worshiping of pagan gods, making Christianity the only religion of the state. In 394, he fought his pagan enemies and won. Theodosius became ill and died in 395. He divided the Roman Empire between his two sons.


Theodosius II

Ruled between 408-450, he was the son and successor of Arcadius. He preferred the study of theology and astronomy to public affairs leaving it to his sister Pulcheria and his wife Eudocia. The most important political events of his reign were the establishment of Valentinian III as emperor in the West in 425 and the raids into the Empire by the Huns under Attila. In 431, Theodosius summoned the Council of Ephesus, which condemned Nestorianism, and in 449 he convoked and upheld the Robber Synod, which declared the orthodoxy of Eutychianism. He also founded the Constantinople University in 425, declared the Theodosian Code (Codex Theodosianus) in 438, and restored the City Walls. Marcian, His brother-in-law, succeeded him when he died in 450 for a riding accident.

Theodosius III

Ruled between 715-717, he was a tax collector at Adramyttium (modern Edremit in the Aegean region) and became an imperial candidate by troops revolted against Anastasius II. He entered Constantinople (Istanbul) as an Emperor in 715 after a siege of six months, deposing Anastasius. He replaced the image of the Sixth Ecumenical Synod. In 716 he signed a treaty with the Bulgarians against Arab attacks on Constantinople, establishing the border in Thrace. In 717 Leo III rebelled against Theodosius' rule and captured his son in Nicomedia (modern Kocaeli), so Theodosius chose to resign the throne. Along with his son, he subsequently entered the clergy and became bishop of Ephesus, where he's buried.

[Blue Blood]

Justinian I

Justinian was one of the most famous and successful emperors of the ByzantineConstantine I. He was born in Ilyricum (near Skopje in Macedonia) in 482 or 483 AD. In 523 he married Theodora, a scandalous dancer thus he was criticized a lot, and ascended to the throne in 527 AD after the death of Justin I. After becoming an emperor, he fought against the Persians between 528-530 who invaded Mesopotamia and attacked on the Byzantine lands, and he stopped them thanks to one of his great commanders of the army, Belisarius. It was under his reign when Nika Riot destroyed the city and most of its important monuments including Hagia Sophia Church, killing over 30.000 people in five days of urban warfare. Justinian managed to end the riot with a great difficulty and than he dedicated himself on the reconstruction of Constantinople and its monuments; Hagia Sophia church, Hagia Irene church, Underground cistern were all built under his rule.
In 533 AD Justinian sent his army to Africa under the command of Belisarius to get rid of the Vandal Kingdom which caused the Byzantines many problems, and he succeeded. In 535 AD he sent his army to Italy with his most favorite commander to end the incapable government of Theodahad, landing in Sicily and advancing all the way to Rome and Ravenna fighting against the Goths until 540. Afterwards another war broke out with Persians in the east, who attacked on the Byzantines and captured Antioch. The war went on until finally Justinian signed a peace pact with Persians in 555 AD.
As for the interior affairs, Justinian supported the Roman Law even though Byzantine population were largely pro-Greek. He established the Justinian Code (Codex Justinianus) in 529 AD uniting all valid imperial laws under one and thus founding the base of almost all legal systems in Europe. He also introduced the silk-worm culture to Europe. But on the other hand, his passion for building great monuments such as Hagia Sophia put the Byzantine treasure under stress and this brought high taxes damaging the trade and industry. Same thing happened with a heavy war taxation to support his war campaigns.
Emperor Justinian died in 565 AD at the age of 83, after reigning for 38 years. He was succeeded by his nephew Justin II. Justinian was buried at the Church of the Holy Apostles in today's Fatih district, which was plundered by the Crusaders and later destroyed by earthquakes.

[Blue Blood]

The Nika Revolt

On January 1, 532 an insurrection broke out unexpectedly in Byzantium (Istanbul) among the populace, and, contrary to expectation, it proved to be a very serious affair in the history of Byzantine Empire, and ended in great harm to the people and to the senate.
In every city the population has been divided for a long time past into the Blue and the Green factions; but within comparatively recent times it has come about that, for the sake of these names and the seats which the rival factions occupy in watching the games in the Hippodrome, they spend their money and abandon their bodies to the most cruel tortures, and even do not think it unworthy to die a most shameful death. And they fight against their opponents knowing not for what end they imperil themselves, but knowing well that, even if they overcome their enemy the fight, the conclusion of the matter for them will be to be carried off straight away to the prison, and finally, after suffering extreme torture, to be destroyed. So there grows up in them against their fellow men a hostility which has no cause, and at no time does it cease or disappear, for it gives place neither to the ties of marriage nor of relationship nor of friendship, and the case is the same even though those who differ with respect to these colors be brothers or any other kin.
At this time the officers of the city administration in Byzantium were leading away to death some of the rioters. But the members of the two factions conspiring together and declaring a truce with each other, seized the prisoners and then straightway entered the prison and released all those who were in confinement there. Fire was applied to the city as if it had fallen under the hand of an enemy. The emperor and his consort , with a few members of the senate shut themselves up in the palace and remained quietly there. Now the watch-word which the populace passed to one another was Nika [i.e., "Conquer"].
On the fifth day of the insurrection in the late afternoon the Emperor Justinian gave orders to Hypatius and Pompeius, nephews of the late emperor, Anastasius, to go home as quickly as possible, either because he suspected that some plot was being matured by them against his own person, or, it may be, because destiny brought them to this. But they feared that the people would force them to the throne (as in fact fell out), and they said that they would be doing wrong if they should abandon their sovereign when he found himself in such danger. When the Emperor Justinian heard this, he inclined still more to his suspicion, and he bade them quit the palace instantly.
On the following day at sunrise it became known to the people that both men bad quit the palace where they had been staying. So the whole population ran to them, and they declared Hypatius emperor and prepared to lead him to the market place to assume the power. But the wife of Hypatius, Mary, a discreet woman, who had the greatest reputation for prudence, laid hold of her husband and would not let go, but cried out with loud lamentation and with entreaties to all her kinsmen that the people were leading him on the road to death. But since the throng overpowered her, she unwillingly released her husband, and he by no will of his own came to the Forum of Constantine, where they summoned him to the throne.
The emperor and his court were deliberating as to whether it would be better for them if they remained or if they took to flight in the ships. And many opinions were expressed favoring either course. And the Empress Theodora also spoke to the following effect: "My opinion then is that the present time, above all others, is inopportune for flight, even though it bring safety. For one who has been an emperor it is unendurable to be a fugitive. May I never be separated from this purple, and may I not live that day on which those who meet me shall not address me as mistress. If, now, it is your wish to save yourself, O Emperor, there is no difficulty. For we have much money, and there is the sea, here the boats. However consider whether it will not come about after you have been saved that you would gladly exchange that safety for death. For as for myself, I approve a certain ancient saying that royalty is a good burial-shroud.". When the queen had spoken thus, all were filled with boldness, and, turning their thoughts towards resistance, they began to consider how they might be able to defend themselves if any hostile force should come against them. All the hopes of the emperor were centred upon Belisarius and Mundus, of whom the former, Belisarius, had recently returned from the Persian war bringing with him a following which was both powerful and imposing, and in particular he had a great number of spearmen and guards who bad received their training in battles and the perils of warfare.
When Hypatius reached the Hippodrome, he went up immediately to where the emperor is accustomed to take his place and seated himself on the royal throne from which the emperor was always accustomed to view the equestrian and athletic contests. And from the palace Mundus went out through the gate which, from the circling descent, has been given the name of the Snail. Belisarius, with difficulty and not without danger and great exertion, made his way over ground covered by ruins and half-burned buildings, and ascended to the stadium. Concluding that he must go against the populace who had taken their stand in the Hippodrome - a vast multitude crowding each other in great disorder - he drew his sword from its sheath and, commanding the others to do likewise, with a shout be advanced upon them at a run. But the populace, who were standing in a mass and not in order, at the sight of armored soldiers who had a great reputation for bravery and experience in war, and seeing that they struck out with their swords unsparingly, beat a hasty retreat. Mundus straightway made a sally into the Hippodrome through the entrance which they call the Gate of Death. Then indeed from both sides the partisans of Hypatius were assailed with might and main and destroyed. There perished among the populace on that day more than thirty thousand. The soldiers killed both Hypatius and Pompeius on the following day and threw bodies into the sea. This was the end of the insurrection in Byzantium.

[Blue Blood]

The Crusades

The success of the Seljuk Turks stimulated a response from Europe in the form of the First Crusade. A counter offensive launched in 1097 by the Byzantine emperor with the aid of Western crusaders dealt the Turks a decisive defeat. Konya fell to the crusaders, who compelled the Turks to provide them with reconnaissance on their march to Jerusalem. In a few years of campaigning, Byzantine rule was restored in the western third of Anatolia, and the crusaders carved out feudal states there and in Syria as vassals of the emperor. A Turkish revival in the 1140s nullified many of the Christian gains, but greater damage was done to Byzantine security by dynastic strife in Constantinople (Istanbul) in which the largely French contingents of the Fourth Crusade and their Venetian allies intervened. In 1204 the crusaders installed Count Baldwin of Flanders in the Byzantine capital as emperor of the so-called Latin Empire, dismembering the old empire into tributary states where Western feudal institutions were transplanted intact.

Independent Greek kingdoms were established at Nicaea (Iznik) and Trebizond (Trabzon) and in Epirus from remnant Byzantine provinces. Turks allied with Greeks in Anatolia against the Latins; Greeks allied with Turks against the Mongols. In 1261 Michael Palaologus of Nicaea drove the Latins from Constantinople (Istanbul) and restored the Byzantine Empire but as an essentially Balkan state reduced in size to Thrace and northwestern Anatolia.
Rum survived in the late thirteenth century as a vassal of the Mongols, who had already subjugated the Great Seljuk sultanate at Baghdad. Mongol influence in the region had disappeared by the 1330s, leaving behind gazi amirates that competed for supremacy. From the caotic conditions that prevailed throughout the Middle East, however, a new power emerged in Anatolia - that of the Ottoman Turks.

[Blue Blood]

Byzantium

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον) was an ancient Greek city, which, according to legend, was founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC and named after their king Byzas or Byzantas (Βύζας or Βύζαντας in Greek). The name "Byzantium" is a Latinization of the original name Byzantion. The city is what later evolved to be the center of the Byzantine Empire, (the Greek-speaking Roman Empire of late Antiquity and the Middle Ages) with the name Constantinople. After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire, the city became known as Istanbul to the Ottoman Turks, but that didn't become the official name of the city until 1930.

History

The origins of Byzantium are shrouded in legend. The traditional legend has it that Byzas from Megara (a town near Athens), founded Byzantium, when he sailed northeast across the Aegean Sea. Byzas had consulted the Oracle at Delphi to ask where to make his new city. The Oracle told him to find it "opposite the blind." At the time, he did not know what this meant. But when he came upon the Bosporus he realized what it meant: on the Asiatic shore was a Greek city, Chalcedon. It was they who must have been blind because they had not seen that obviously superior land was just a half mile away on the other side of the Bosporus. Byzas founded his city here in this "superior" land and named it Byzantion after himself. It was mainly a trading city due to its strategic location at the Black Sea's only entrance. Byzantion later conquered Chalcedon, across the Bosporus.
After siding with Pescennius Niger against the victorious Septimius Severus, the city was besieged by Roman forces and suffered extensive damage in 196 AD. Byzantium was rebuilt by Septimius Severus, now emperor, and quickly regained its previous prosperity. The location of Byzantium attracted Roman Emperor Constantine I who, in 330 AD, refounded it as Nova Roma. After his death the city was called Constantinople (Greek Κωνσταντινούπολη) ('city of Constantine'). It remained the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, which was later called the Byzantine Empire by historians.
This combination of imperialism and location would affect Constantinople's role as the crossing point between two continents: Europe and Asia. It was a commercial, cultural, and diplomatic magnet. With its strategic position, Constantinople could control the route between Asia and Europe, as well as the passage from the Mediterranean Sea to the Black Sea.
On May 29, 1453, the city fell to the Ottoman Turks, and, once again, became the capital of another powerful state, the Ottoman Empire. The Turks called the city Istanbul (though not officially renamed until 1930) and it has remained Turkey's largest (and arguably its most important) city, although Ankara is now the capital

About Emblem

In 670 BC, the citizens of Byzantium made the crescent moon as their state symbol, after an important victory. Byzantium was the first governing state to use the crescent moon as its national symbol. In 330 AD Constantine I added the Virgin Mary's star to the flag. Byzantium would then also be the first attested nation or empire to use the combination of the crescent moon and star together as an emblem.
The crescent moon and star was not completely abandoned by the Christian world after the fall of Constantinople. To date the official flag of the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem is a labarum of white, a church building with two towers, and on either side of the arms, at the top, are the outline in black of a crescent moon facing center and a star with rays.

Notable people

• Homerus, early 3rd century BC, tragedian
• Philo (ca. 280 BC-ca. 220 BC), engineer
• Epigenes (3rd century BC-2nd), astrologer
• Leontius (c. 485-c. 543), theologian and writer

[Blue Blood]

The Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire is the successor state to the Roman Empire in the East, centered on its capital of Constantinople which existed from Late Antiquity until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. ("Byzantium" is the historiographical term used in the West since the 19th century to describe this empire). Whilst it was known as the "Empire of the Greeks" to many of its Western contemporaries (due to the dominance of Greek language, culture and population), it was referred to by its inhabitants simply as the Roman Empire (Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων) or Romania (Ῥωμανία) and its emperors continued the unbroken succession of Roman emperors; to the Islamic world it was known primarily as روم‎ (Rûm, land of the "Romans").
As an outgrowth of the eastern portion of Empire founded in Rome, the Byzantine Empire's evolution into a separate culture from the West can be seen as a process beginning with Emperor Constantine's transferring the capital from Nicomedia in Anatolia to Byzantium on the Bosporus (re-named Nova Roma and then as Constantinople). By the 7th century under the reign of Emperor Heraclius, whose reforms changed the nature of the Empire's military and recognized Greek as the Empire's language, the Empire had taken on a distinct new character.
During its lifetime the Empire suffered numerous setbacks and losses of territory yet it remained the most powerful economic and military power in Europe, North Africa, and the near East for much of the Middle Ages. After a final recovery under the Komnenian dynasty in the 12th century the Empire slipped into a long decline culminating in the capture of Constantinople and the remaining Roman/Greek territories by the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century.
During her thousand-year reign the Empire, a bastion of Christianity and one of the prime trade centers in the world, helped to shield Western Europe from early Muslim expansion, provided a stable gold currency for the Mediterranean region, influenced the laws, political systems, and customs of much of Europe and the Middle East, and preserved much of the literary works and scientific knowledge of ancient Greece, Rome, and many other cultures.


Etymology

Byzantine Empire Timeline 667 BC The ancient city of Byzantium (the future Constantinople and future Istanbul) is founded. 27 BC The rise of the Roman Empire. ca. 235 - 284 The "crisis of the 3rd century". 292 The reforms of Diocletian ("The Tetrarchy") 330 Constantine makes Byzantium into his capital (Nova Roma), which is renamed "Constantinople" (The City of Constantine The Empire is permanently split into eastern and ), sometime after Constantine's death in 337. It would remain the capital of the Byzantine Empire, with a half-century exception, for over a thousand years. 395western halves, following on the death of Theodosius I. 527 Justinian I is crowned "emperor". April 7, 529 The Codex Justinianus is promulgated. 532–537
armies conquer the invasion. The Emperor, Justinian, builds the church of Hagia Sophia 533–554 Justinian's generals reconquer North Africa and Italy from the Vandals and the Ostrogoths. 568 The Lombard invasion results in the loss of most of Italy. 634–641 The ArabLevant and Egypt. In the following decades, they take most of North Africa (and later conquer Sicily as well). 697 The Byzantine city of Carthage in North Africa (capital of the Exarchate of Africa) falls to the Arab730–787 and 813–843 The Iconoclasm controversies result in the loss of most of the Empire's remaining Italian territories, aside from some of the territories of the Mezzogiorno record and preserve many of the remaining . 843–1025 The Macedonian dynasty is established and the Empire experiences a military and territorial revival. Byzantine scholarsancient Greek and Roman texts. 960–1042 The Byzantine Empire deals a string of defeats upon the forces of the Abassid and Fatimid Caliphate, reconquering parts of Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine. 1002–1018 The Emperor, Basil II, campaigns annually against the Bulgarians, with the object of annihilating the Bulgar state. 1014 The Bulgarian army is completely defeated at the Battle of Kleidon (Basil II becomes known as The Bulgar Slayer become established. A successful rebellion is organized in Bulgaria and other lands are lost in the Balkans. ). 1018 Bulgaria surrenders and is annexed to the empire. The whole of the Balkans is incorporated into the Byzantine Empire, with the Danube as the new Imperial frontier to the north. 1025 With the death of Basil II, the zenith of the Empire's power is passed and the long decline of the Byzantine Empire begins. 1054 The Schism (split between Church in Rome and the Church in Constantinople). 1071 The Emperor, Romanos IV, is defeated by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert, losing his position in most of Asia Minor. In the same year, the last Byzantine outpost in Italy (Bari) is conquered by the Normans. 1081 The Komnenos dynasty is established by Alexios I and Byzantium becomes involved in the Crusades. Economic prosperity generates new wealth; literature and the arts reach new heights. In Anatolia, the Turks1091 The Imperial armies defeat the Pechenegs at the Battle of Levounion. 1097 The recapture of Nicaea from the Turks by the Byzantine armies and the First Crusaders. 1097-1176 The Byzantine armies recapture the coasts of Asia Minor from the Turks, and push east towards central Anatolia. The Crusader Principality of Antioch becomes a Byzantine protectorate. 1122 The Byzantines defeat the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia. 1167 The Byzantine armies win a decisive victory over the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium and Hungary subsequently becomes a Byzantine client state. 1176 The Battle of Myriokephalon and the Emperor, Manuel I Komnenos, attempts to capture Konya, the capital of the Seljuk Turks. He is forced to withdraw after the destruction of his siege equipment. This is the effective end of the Imperial attempts to recover Anatolian plateau. 1180 With the death of the Emperor, Manuel I Komnenos, the decline of the Empire recommences. 11851204 Constantinople is conquered by Crusaders, attempting to establish a Latin Empire. 1261 Constantinople is reconquered by the Patriarch of Constantinople sponsored Emperor of Nicaea, Michael VIII Palaiologos, re-establishing Greek rule of a terminally diminished empire. 1326 The city of Prusa in Asia Minor falls to the Ottoman Turks. 1326 The city of Nicaea, capital of the Empire only 100 years previously, falls to the Ottoman Turks. 1453 The Ottoman Turks conquer Constantinople, and with the death of Constantine XIPalaiologos, the last emperor of the Byzantine Empire, the Byzantine Empire comes to an end, marking final destruction of the Roman Empire. Byzantine Empire or Byzantium is the historiographical term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Roman Empire of the Middle Ages, centered on its capital of Constantinople. During much of its history it was known to many of its Western contemporaries as the Empire of the Greeks because of the dominance of Greek language, culture and population. To its inhabitants, the Empire was simply the Roman Empire (Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων) or Romania (Ῥωμανία) and its emperors continued the unbroken succession of Roman emperors. In the Islamic world it was known primarily as روم‎ (Rûm, land of the "Romans").
The term 'Byzantine Empire' is an invention of historians and was never used during the Empire's lifetime. The Empire's name in Greek was Basileia RōmaiōnImperium Romanōrum); or just Rōmania
The term "Byzantine" itself comes from "Byzantium", the name that the city of Constantinople had before it became the capital of Constantine. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts.
The designation of the Empire as "Byzantine" began in Western Europe in 1557, when German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ By­zantinæ, a collection of Byzantine sources. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre (Corpus Scriptorum Historiæ Byzantinæ), and in 1680 of Du Cange's Historia Byzantina further popularized the use of Byzantine among French authors, such as Montesquieu. It was not until the 19th century, however, with the birth of modern Greece, that the term "Byzantine" came into general use in the Western world.
Before this, the Empire was described by Western Europeans as Imperium Graecorum (Empire of the Greeks)—Byzantine claims to Roman inheritance had been actively contested from at least the time of the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in 800. Whenever the Popes or the rulers of the West wanted to make use of the name Roman to refer to the Byzantine emperors, they preferred the term Imperator Romaniæ instead of Imperator Romanorum, a title reserved only for Charlemagne and his successors.

[Blue Blood]

Byzantium under the Heraclians

The Byzantine Empire or Byzantium is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the Middle Ages, centered around its capital of Constantinople. As the direct continuation of the Roman Empire, Byzantium survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire during Late Antiquity, and continued to function until its conquest by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During this time, many different imperial dynasties ruled over the empire; in the context of Byzantine history, the period c.610 - c.711 AD was under the Heraclian dynasty and its successors, after the Byzantine General Heraclius who seized power from Phocas, a General who served under the last member of the Justinian dynasty, Maurice.
Under the Heraclian dynasty, the Byzantine Empire underwent cataclysmic transformations, with foreign invasions, plague, religious controversies and rebellions changing the state from a Roman offensive-orientated empire to a Greek defensive-orientated one. Wars with the Slavs, Persians and Arabs saw extensive territorial losses - with the latter foe implementing permanent conquests of Byzantine territory. At the end of the Heraclian dynasty in 711 AD, the Byzantine Empire attained its smallest territorial extent.

Background

Ever since the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire continued to see Western Europe as rightfully Imperial territory. However, only Justinian I attempted to enforce this claim with military might. Temporary success in the west was achieved at the cost of Persian dominance in the East, where the Byzantines were forced to pay them tribute to avert war. However leading up to Justinian's death, the western provinces fell to the numerous German tribes, notably the Lombards and the Visigoths. At the same time, wars with the Persian Empire brought no conclusive victory. When the last Emperor of the Justinian dynasty Maurice (along with his four sons) was murdered by the general Phocas in 602 the Persian King Khosrau II launched an assault on the Byzantine Empire. Due to the repressive nature of Phocas (introducing torture on a large scale), the Persians got their way, defeating the Byzantines and capturing Syria and Mesopotamia by 607. In 608, the Persians camped outside of Chalcedon, within sight of the Capital whilst Anatolia was ravaged by Persian raids. Making matters worse was the advance of the Avars and Slavs heading south across the Danube and into Imperial territory. In this crisis, Heraclius the younger seized power from Phocas in an effort to better Byzantium's fortunes.

Heraclius


The Empire in chaos

The Byzantine Empire was in a most horrendous state on the eve of Phocas' overthrow. At a time when the Persians were making headway in their attempt to conquer the lands of the Byzantine Empire, Phocas choose to divide his subjects rather than unite them against the threat of the Persians. Perhaps seeing his defeats as Divine retribution, Phocas initiated a savage and bloody campaign to forcibly convert the Jews to Christianity. Persecutions and alienations of the Jews, a frontline people in the war against the Persians was a stupid move that undoubtedly led to the Jews aiding the Persian conquerors. As Jews and Christians began tearing each other apart, some fled the butchery into Persian territory. Meanwhile it appears that the disasters befalling the Empire led the Emperor into a state of paranoia - although it must be said that there were numerous plots against his rule and execution followed execution. Among those being relieved of this hell on Earth was the former Empress Constantina and her three daughters.

Heraclius the elder arrives

As the Empire was led into anarchy, the Exarchate of Carthage remained relatively out of reach of Persian conquest. Far from the incompetent Imperial authority of the time Heraclius, the Exarch of Carthage, with his brother Gregorius, began building up his forces to take on Constantinople. After cutting of whatever grain supply to the capital was under his control, he led a substantial army and a fleet in 608 AD to restore order in the Empire. Heraclius gave the command of the army to Gregorius' son, Nicetas whilst command of the fleet went to Heraclius' son, Heraclius the younger. Nicetas took part of the fleet and his forces to Egypt, taking Alexandria at the end of 608 AD. Heraclius the younger meanwhile headed to Thessalonika from where, after receiving more supplies and troops, he sailed for Constantinople. He reached his destination un-opposed; in fact the citizens of Constantinople greeted him as their deliverer, just as he had been secretly assured not too long before. When Phocas was delivered to Heraclius, an amusing conversation took place:


Heraclius: "Is it thus that you have governed the Empire?"
Phocas: "Will you govern it better?"
In some aspects, Phocas and Heraclius were very alike - both were usurpers to the throne, both having been Generals of the Byzantine army. The similarities end however when it comes to how well they did in office.

Early failures

Heraclius executed Phocas and his loyal henchmen shortly after the conversation. After having married his wife in an elaborate ceremony and crowned by the Patriarch, Heraclius set out to do his work. He was 36 years old when he seized power. His early reign yielded results reminiscent of Phocas' reign. The Avars and Slavs continued to overrun the Balkans whilst the Persians remained outside Chalcedon, not too far from the Capital. The province of Syria was in total chaos; there were few Christians left alive in Damascus or Jerusalem. Countless churches (including the Holy Sepulchre) were burnt and many relics, including the True Cross, the Holy Lance and the Sponge, present at the time of Jesus Christ's death were now in Ctesiphon. In 611 AD, 613 AD and 614 AD respectively Antioch, Damascus and Jerusalem were taken. Despite his cousin's earlier efforts, Egypt was also lost, resulting in a significant loss in manpower and food. It was not entirely hopeless however. Constantinople's walls were as good as ever, and he still had a much better fleet than any of his "barbarian" opponents (especially the Slavs and Avars). The Persians had no vessels in the Bosporus so a siege of the city could not commence.

Themata system

Heraclius' first act was to reorganize Western Anatolia into four Themes. These administrative regions were to be governed by a strategos, a military governor. The aim of these themes was to maximise military potential - many able-bodied men and their families were settled in these four themes and given land for farming. In return they were to provide the Empire with troops and so began the Thematic armies of the Byzantine Empire that would prove to be reliable, though not unbeatable. Nonetheless a native, well-trained army loyal to the state would serve the Empire better than ill-disciplined mercenaries, whose loyalty to coin could be manipulated and turned against the state itself, as it had in the Western Empire. To finance the reconstruction of the military, Heraclius fined those accused of corruption, increased taxes, debased the currency to pay more soldiers and forced loans. The Patriarch of Constantinople Sergius placed the finances of the Church into the hands of the State, a surprising but well-needed sacrifice.

Byzantine counter

Next, he aimed to eliminate one of his dangerous enemies. Since the Persians had conquered much territory, but had yet to consolidate fully, he decided to make peace with the Avars and attack the Persians. With his Eastern opponents still outside Chalcedon, in the Spring of 622 AD Heraclius took his army and sailed down the Ionian coast and landed at Issus, the site where Alexander the Great had defeated the same enemies of Rome some 1,000 years ago. At Issus he oversaw the extensive training of his men. In Autumn of 622 AD, he marched his army north and encountered a Persian force in the Cappadocian highlands. Despite having no military experience in leading an army in the field, the Byzantine Emperor routed the forces of the experienced Persian General Shahr-Baraz, winning morale and territory. The following Spring in 623 AD, Heraclius led his troops through Armenia and Azerbaijan, destroying the Persian palace at Gaznak. Burning numerous cities of his opponents, Heraclius made a risky move and headed deep to Ctesiphon. However, Shahr-Baraz began cutting of Heraclius' supply lines and so he withdrew to the western shore of the Caspian where his second wife & niece safely delivered a child (the marriage was seen by many as incestuous). In 624 AD, Heraclius led another campaign to the Lake Van. However the victory that he sought would not come to him until the following year. Leading his army through Ararat down the Arsanias river for some 200 miles (320 km) to capture Martyropolis and Amida, he finally encountered a Persian army north of Adana after marching 70 miles (113 km) to Mesopotamia. The Battle went well for the Persians initially as they destroyed the vanguard of the Byzantine army. However, Heraclius then seized the initiative by launching a seemingly suicidal charge across the river Euphrates - even Shahr-Baraz did not deny the bravery of the Emperor:


“ See your Emperor! He fears these arrows and spears no more than would an anvil!. „

—Shahr-Baraz

Siege of Constantinople

Victory belonged to the Byzantines and now the honours in the war were even. However, the Persian threat was not diminished. The long awaited assault on Constantinople was beginning to materialize - the Avars began moving siege equipment towards the capital (the siege began on 29th June 626 AD) whilst Shahr-Baraz was ordered to send his army to Chalcedon and link up with them. Meanwhile Khosrau II began conscription, raising a crack force of 50,000 men. Heraclius it seems, was being out-manoeuvred by more numerous armies. Duplicating this strategy, he divided his army into three sections. One would defend the capital whilst another would face the 50,000 conscripts in Mesopotamia under the Persian General Shahin. A third under Heraclius would march through Armenia and the Caucasus and into Persia, which he believed had been stripped of her troops. Heraclius' general Theodore fared well against Shahin in Mesopotamia, inflicting a crushing defeat on his enemies.At Constantinople, the city was well defended with a force of some 12,000 cavalry (presumably dismounted), supported by the entire city's population. Indeed, the efforts of the Patriarch Sergius in whipping up the population into a religious and patriotic frenzy cannot be overlooked. When the Byzantine fleet annihilated a Persian and an Avar fleet in two separate ambushes with Greek fire, the besiegers appeared to have withdrawn in panic; when word of Theodore's victory in Mesopotamia came it was concluded by the besiegers that Byzantium was now under the protection of their Christian God.

Endgame

For Heraclius, 626 AD was a year of little action - it appears that in an attempt to bolster his forces, he promised the hand of his daughter Epiphania to the Khan of the Khazars. Impressed by the offer (though no doubt Epiphania was not), the Khan put to field some 40,000 troops to the Byzantine side. It would be to Epiphania's great relief that the Khan died the following year. Nonetheless Byzantium made good use of the boost in troops when Heraclius marched into Mesopotamia in 627 AD. His objective was clear: to destroy the Persians' army and march to Ctesiphon. No Emperor had done so in hundreds of years since the days of Julian. His army marched cautiously. It was known that a Persian force was close and an ambush was always possible. Razates, the new Persian commander, was not keen to face Heraclius either until his army was ready for a pitched battle.
After spending a greater part of 627 in Mesopotamia, Heraclius finally encountered the Persian army close to the ruins of the city of Ninevah. For eleven hours, the Byzantines and the Persians fought each other without break. In the thick of the fighting Razates issued a challenge to Heraclius, who accepted. Despite being wounded, Heraclius managed to cut off Razates' head. When the sun finally began to set, the Persians were defeated and the army rested.
Heraclius later moved on to Dastagird only to find that Khosrau II had fled the Palace. Heraclius had it and everything within burnt to the ground. Moving on he soon found that Khosrau no longer commanded the loyalty of his subjects - as they refused to rally to defend Ctesiphon. Heraclius waited a week or two before marching his army back. Khosrau's son Siroes took power and had his father shot to death with arrows. Later, a peace treaty favourable to the Byzantines led to the restoration of the pre-war boundaries.As an added bonus, all captives and Christian relics captured were handed back. Thus it was at the head of the True Cross that Heraclius entered the Capital on 14th September 628 AD triumphant. Leading a procession which included four elephants, the True Cross was placed high atop the altar of the Hagia Sophia.
It was expected by all that the Emperor would lead Byzantium into a new age of glory. All of Heraclius' achievements would come to naught when in 633 AD, the Byzantine-Arab Wars began.

The decline

The threat of the Arabs from Arabia was overlooked by both Persia and Byzantium for several reasons - most compelling of all were the wars between the two powers, and the lack of communication across the desert expanse. Nonetheless, efforts were conducted, sometimes cooperatively, by the Byzantines and the Persians to stop the advance of the Arabs.
On the 8th June 632 AD, the Islamic Prophet Mohammed died of a fever. However, the religion he left behind would transform the Middle East forever. In 633 AD the armies of Islam marched out of Arabia, their goal to spread the word of the prophet, with force if needed. In 634 AD, the Arabs defeated a Byzantine force sent into Syria and captured Damasacus. The arrival of another large Byzantine army outside Antioch (some 80,000 troops) forced the Arabs to retreat. The Byzantines advanced in May 636 AD. However, a sandstorm blew on 20th August 636 AD against the Byzantines and when the Arabs charged against them they were utterly annihilated:


“ The Battle fought at Yarmuk was of the fiercest and bloodiest kind...the Greeks and their followers tied themselves to each other by chains, so that no one might set his hope to flight. By Allah's help some 70,000 of them were put to death and their remnants took to flight... „

—Al-Baladhuri

Jerusalem surrendered to the Arabs in 637 AD following a stout resistance; in 638 the Caliph Omar rode into the city Heraclius stopped by Jerusalem to recover the True Cross whilst it was under siege. In his old age he was becoming increasingly defunct in his rule. Once the commander of his father's fleet, he developed a phobia of the sea and refused to cross the Bosporus to the Capital. Only when several boats were tied along the length of the strait with shrubs placed along to hide the water did he ride across, "as if by land" as a contemporary put it. When the commander of the Roman forces obtained such a mentality, it is little wonder how smaller but well-determined and zealous soldiers can defeat numerous and divided opponents.
The Arab invasions and loss of territory was not all that bore heavily upon the Emperor's mind. It was rumoured that the incestuous marriage to his niece had incurred the wrath of God - of the nine children that he had, four had died in infancy, one had a twisted neck and one was deaf and dumb. Furthermore, it appears that the Empire was not even considering the Arab threat as a danger. The religious controversies once again emerged when the Patriarch of Constantinople Sergius proposed monothelitism as a compromise to the Chalcedonian Christians and the Monophysites. Heraclius agreed to the proposal. However, it received much criticism from both sides of the theological debate of Christ's true nature. When Sophronius, a major critic of monothelitism was elected as Patriarch of Jerusalem, the Empire began once again to tear itself apart. To some in the Empire the Arabs' promise of religious freedom seemed preferable to the other, seemingly blasphemous politically-motivated proposals. At his death bed on 11th February 641 AD, Heraclius died whispering that he had lied; he was reluctant to support monothelitism. It appears that unity was all that he sought.
Before his death Heraclius was "persuaded" by his wife Martian to crown her son Heraclonas co-heir to the throne of the Empire with Constantine, the son of Heraclius' first wife Eudocia - all the meanwhile ignoring the numerous Byzantines who saw her as the reason for Byzantium's recent misfortunes. Her ambitions for power ensured that Byzantium would continue to succumb to disorder.

Heraclius' rule

Early on, Heraclius had proven to be an excellent Emperor - his reorganization of the Empire into Themes allowed the Byzantines to extract as much as they could to increase their military potential. This became essential after 650 AD when the Caliphate was far more resourceful and powerful then the Byzantines were - as a result a high level of efficiency was needed to combat the Saracens, achieved in part due to the Theme system. Heraclius also completed the Hellenization of the Empire by making Greek the language of the Empire - Latin became a language increasingly for the upper class. As the Empire lost her outer lands, the number of Greek speakers rose and Latin was no longer advantageous to use. Heraclius abandoned the words "Imperator", "Augustus" and other Imperial titles in favor of the word "Basileus", the Greek word for King. It is perhaps this transformation that results in coins bearing the motto, "King over Kings, Ruler of rulers", a defunct saying for post-640 AD Byzantium considering what little land was under Imperial rule.
Had Heraclius lived until 629 AD, he would have been remembered for his Themes and his astonishing handling of the last Persian war, which saw victory snatched from the jaws of defeat. However, his long life meant that the Byzantines remembered him for his religious controversies, his failures against the Byzantines and the incestuous marriage to his niece, many believing to have brought divine retribution.
Heraclius' body remained unburied for three days, guarded by his soldiers until it was laid to rest in the Church of the Holy Apostles within a sarcophagus of white onyx next to the founder of his Empire, Constantine I.

Constans II


Death of Heraclius

Heraclius' incapability to rule the Empire as his death neared did Byzantium no favours. When he was finally relieved of his earthly worries forever the former Empress Martina declared herself, her son Heraclonas and Constantine co-emperors of the Byzantine Empire. Alas, the citizens of Constantinople would not have it and when Constantine III died sometime between 24 - 26 May 641 (perhaps by Martina's hand?), Heraclonas and his mother were deposed the following summer. Heraclonas had his nose slit and his mother Martina had her tongue pulled out. The nose slit ensured that he could never become Basileus - the Physical deformation would have made it out of the question. Nonetheless as regicide suspects their exile to Rhodes must have been a light punishment.
With Constantine dead, the crowd of Constantinople turned to his 11-year old son (also known as Heraclius) who was crowned as the Byzantine Emperor and changed his name to Constans, becoming Constans II of Byzantium.

Wars with the Arabs

One of the less admirable elements Constans II inherited from his grandfather Heraclius was the war with the Arabs who were bent on conquering the Byzantine Empire and spreading the word of the Islamic Prophet Mohammad. Upon his ascension, there was little time to implement a defence for Egypt - and when the country fell in 642 Constans II could hardly be blamed.
The loss of Egypt and the Levant was catastrophic - along with the manpower, the supply of food from Egypt was now a thing of the past. Food shortages was added to an increasing list of problems. However bad the losses were, it the Arab armies did not pause in celebration of victory - in 647 the Exarch of Carthage was decisively defeated - yet another humiliating defeat for "the Greeks". The list of defeats would continue to grow; in 644 the new Ottoman Caliphate began building up a large fleet to take on centuries of Greco-Roman naval dominance. In 657 the fleet was sent into battle against the Byzantine naval base at Cyprus - the results were impressive for the fleet, sacking the chief city Constantia and destroying the countryside & the harbour installations.In 654 AD the Arab fleet continued unopposed to the Island of Rhodes. When the Island fell, Constans II suffered a heavy defeat when he sent his fleet to engage the Arabs of Lycia. Constans II escaped death by changing his clothes with an ordinary man thereby evading possible capture or, even worse, death.

Respite

At this point, the Arabs looked unbeatable and only they could stop themselves. Fortunately for Byzantium, the Arabs began quarrelling amongst themselves. The Caliph Othamn was assassinated in Medina. Ali, the Islamic Prophet's son-in law was elected as the Caliph "on the spot". However, Muawiya, the governor of Syria who led the fleet against Byzantium was proclaimed Caliph in Syria as well. Only when Ali was assassinated in 661 AD did the civil strife end, much to Byzantium's disappointment.

Attempts to deal with religious controversies

Clearly, Byzantium stood no chance whatsoever of defending herself against her opponents when Bishops tore the Empire over theological debates. Constans II saw this and it seems that he had enough of it. In 648, Constans still only 18 years of age, declared an edict that no one would raise the monethelism/chalcedon controversy under the pain of banishment, following an excommunication by the Pope Theodore to the Patriarch of Constantinople. When Theodore's successor, Martin once again added fuel to the fire by summoning a council in condemnation of Monethelitism in October of 648, he was arrested, brought to the Capital and badly mistreated as a common criminal. In prison it is said the his mistreatment was such that blood was on the floor. Finally, after being accused of treason and regicide he was banished to the Crimea. Such was the frustration of the Emperor. Suffice to say men like Martin, Phocas and others divided Byzantiums' subjects. Were this to continue, then the tide of the Islamic advance would not be held back and Christendom would not have the pleasure of destroying herself.

To the West

Constans II decided to turn his attention to the West in the hope of achieving better luck. Whilst the Saracens were establishing themselves in former Byzantine territory, the Avars and Bulgars still remained along the Danube river, as did the Slavs, whose annual payment to the Empire was falling short. Constans II then decided to move his capital to Syracuse in 662 AD. Some say that this was to escape horrible visions of his brother whom he had murdered 2 years past. His stay in Italy and Sicily can only be imagined as unpleasant for the locals. Everything of any value in Rome was requisitioned by the Byzantine army - even copper from the rooftops. It was to many people's relief that Constans II was murdered while bathing by his Greek servant on the 15th of September 668 AD.
Constans II left the Empire in a worse state than he had found it in. The Byzantine-Arab wars became increasingly one-sided and the immense resources of the Caliphate meant that any reconquest was now remotely unlikely - and more so whilst disunity through dissatisfied peasants and restless Bishops lingered as a cancer.

Constantine IV

Constantine IV would prove to be a much wiser and able Emperor than Constans II was.

Siege of Constantinople

Like his predecessors, the wars with the Saracens continued relatively unabated. Before becoming Emperor, Constantine IV was the administrator of his father's lands for the eastern portions of the Empire, what few territories they were. They became fewer still when the Arabs began taking one Imperial Byzantin city after another along the Ionian coast. Finally in 672 AD, Muawiya the Caliph captured the peninsula of Cyzicus only 50 miles (80 km) from Constantinople. The scene was all too depressingly familiar - the capital was under threat and the odds were not favorable to the defenders - the Arabs had brought with them heavy siege weapons and began the siege of Constantinople in 674 AD. Despite this, Constantinople was simply too much for the Arabs - where else before disunity, sheer bad luck or skill & zeal had given the warriors of Islam victory, now it was the defenders of the Capital who, armed with Greek fire cooked every Arab assault. Finally in 679 AD, with only death achieved, the Saracens withdrew and Muawiya accepted an offer of peace. In 680 AD Muawiya was dead and Constantine IV, now at the height of his popularity had managed to defeat the Arabs on both land at Lycia and at sea.

Wars with the Bulgars

With the Saracen threat averted, the Byzantines turned their attention to the west, where the Bulgars were encroaching on Imperial territory. In 680 AD, Constantine IV launched a naval expedition to drive them back - the expedition failed and the Bulgars grew even bolder. Unable to stop them by force, Constantine settled for a humiliating, but not disastrous treaty whereby "protection" money had to be paid to the Bulgar King. The greatest implication of this treaty was that Byzantium would no longer have to worry about the Bulgars for the rest of Constantine's reign.

Sixth Ecumenical Council

Constantine IV was determined to solve the problem of the monotheism/chalcedon controversy once and for all. Calling forth representatives from all corners of Christendom to discuss the matter at hand they debated until in 681 AD when Constantine IV, who had presided over much of the meetings, endorsed the virtually unanimous findings. Four years later in 685 AD, Constantine IV died. His death at Thirty three years robbed Byzantium of a good Emperor who had defeated her enemies from within as well as without.
Constantine's wife Anastasia had given him a son, Justinian. As it would turn out his name would dictate his foreign policy in an attempt to emulate Justinian I's conquest of the West - a risky move considering what few resources the Empire had to defend herself.

Justinian II


Victories

The beginning of Justinian's reign continued the successes his father had enjoyed against the Arab invaders. Campaigning into Armenia, Georgia and even Syria, he was able to enforce a renewal of a peace treaty signed by his father and the Caliph. With the wars in the east favorably concluded, Justinian II turned his attention to the west were he sent an expedition against the slavs between 688 and 689. His success in the west was crowned with a triumphant entry into Thessalonika, the second city of the Empire.
Following these victories, Justinian set about attempting to increase the Opsikion Theme by bringing in some 250,000 settlers of Slavic origin into Asia Minor. The benefit of the move was twofold - in addition to opening up more agricultural land, there would also have been an increase in the population and a larger number of Thematic militia troops could be raised - allowing the Byzantine Empire to wage war with more. Furthermore, the increase in the lower classes shifted the balance of power from the aristocracy to the class of well-off peasants. These self-sufficient peasants, who owned their own land formed the backbone of the Thematic armies. Under such circumstances the power of the Empire and the Emperor increased simultaneously.

Failures

In 691 AD war with the Arabs resumed and Justinian began increasing taxes in order to finance the conflict. However, in the face of these extortionate requisitions some 20,000 slav soldiers deserted to the Arabs - with them went Armenia to the enemy. Enraged, Justinian ordered the extermination of all Slavs in Bithynia - countless men, women and children were put to the sword in rage.
Justinian then turned his attention to religious matters, which had been quietended down by the efforts of his Father. When he called yet another council to wrap up loose ends from the previous (fifth and sixth) ecumenical councils, trivial and strict proposals were laid out including excommunication for "crimes" ranging from provocative or seductive hair curling, the mention of the pagan gods (especially Bacchus during the grape harvest), the selling of charms, dealing with fortune tellers and even dancing. Hermits were forbidden from talking with townfolk or presenting themselves in a particular manner. To make matters worse, no representatives were summoned from Rome so when Pope Sergius I was asked to approve of 102 cannons he not only refused but managed to use the militias of Rome and Ravenna against the Exarch Zacharias. The clemency of the pope allowed the Exarch of Ravenna to escape with his life.
Upon hearing of this, Justinian is said to have gone into another one of his rages. He was already unpopular at the young age of 23. His heavy handedness in extracting the tax money from the peasants and the rich made him deeply resented, especially with his use of torture, which included the use of fire and whips. It was therefore to no one's surprise (though to many a Byzantine's delight) that rebellion came from the ranks of the aristocracy. The revolt found a leader in a professional but disgraced soldier, Leontius.

Non-dynastic: Leontius

Prisoner

Leontius was in prison when a monk once told him that he would one day wear the Imperial diadem. Such talk was not only dangerous for the monk (who if discovered would have been blinded and exiled for treason) but also dangerous for the man whose ears received - and preyed upon Leontius' mind until in 695 AD (after being released) he immediately began a relatively unplanned coup. Fortunately for him many of his comrades had also been imprisoned (suggesting that perhaps his entire unit may well have been disgraced) so when he marched upon his former prison to release the inmates, many declared their support for him.

Rise and Fall

Marching on to the Hagia Sophia, he was fortunate enough to find the support of the Patriarch - whose recent insults to the incumbent Emperor left him in fear of his life and with little choice.
With the support of the fanatical Hippodrome Blue team, Leontius and his men overthrew Justinian II, cutting his nose of in the oriental process of rhinokopia and declaring himself as Basileus. Justinian's Father, though on more friendly terms with Leontius still lost his tongue and his nose as well.
Lenotius rule was both brief and a miserable failure. The armies of Islam were once more on the march and this time the Exarch of Carthage was in serious trouble. Earlier defeats had established Arab supremacy in the region. Leontius, despite his military background, had an unsuccessful expedition sent to Carthage. Rather than report their loss and face the inevitable wrath of the Emperor, the defeated troops decided to name one of their own as Basileus (a German called Apsimar) and with the support of the Hippodrome Green team (a serious rival of the Blue team that promoted Leontius to the Imperial throne) established Apsimar as Basileus Tiberius III.

Non-dynastic: Tiberius III

For more details on this topic, see Tiberius III.
Tiberius' rule was equally short but slightly more impressive for his successful campaigning against the Saracens - indeed it seems that his Germanic heritage had given him the same appetite for war that had allowed many of his "barbarian" kind to conquer the Western Empire, with his troops reaching into Armenia and even Muslim-held Syria. But by that time in 705 AD he was overthrown by military force. Justinian, who for ten years was in exile, returned. The Byzantine population could not have asked for a worse overthrow.

Justinian II (restored)


Years in Exile

After having been deposed by Leontius, Justinian escaped to the Khagan of the Khazars who welcomed him and even gave his sister as a wife to him. Renaming his wife Theodora he settled at Phanagoria at the entrance to the sea of azov where they could keep an eye on Imperial events. Justinian was forced to act when in 704 AD word reached that he was wanted dead or alive for a handsome reward. Such rumours were confirmed when a band of soldiers arrived at his location. Realizing that his life was in danger, he invited two of the officers (whom he suspected as the assassins) to his house and murdered them. Leaving his wife in the safety of her brother, he fled to Bulgaria, Byzantium's chief opponent in the West. There he secured a pact with the Bulgar King Tervel granting him the title of Caesar if he aided him in regaining the throne of Byzantium.

Restoration & rule

In the Spring of 705 AD, Constantinople found herself surrounded by yet another army of Slavs and Bulgars, led by Justinian. After three days of scouting his men found an abandoned conduit running across the walls and managed to slip inside. There he surprised the sleeping guards at the Palacae of Blachernae. Within moments the building was his and Tiberius fled to Bithynia whilst the citizens of the Capital surrendered - the alterative would have been a savage sack that in the mind of the vengeful Justinian, was what it needed. The following day Tervel was given the title of Caesar and a purple robe.
With his coup successful, Justinian II set about bringing his wife back and settling the numerous scores he had with his disloyal subjects. Tiberius and his predecessor Leontius were both executed the previous day after a humiliating pelting at the Hippodrome. Next the Patriarch, whose offence had led to his hasty support of Leontius and the crowning of both of Justinian's successors led to his blinding and exile to Rome. After that Justinian set about killing Tiberius' brother, Heraclius who was perhaps the best General in the Empire. With him and his staff of officers dead, Byzantium's neighbours lost no time in exploiting the weakened army - suffering major defeats against the barbarian tribes near the mouth of the Danube and losing the vital stronghold of Tyana in Cappadocia.

Expeditions of revenge

It can be said without hesitation that Justinian's return to power was nothing more than a sad epilogue to the Heraclian line, with revenge being the state's most highly prioritized policy.

Ravenna

Bent upon making other suffer as he had, Justinian had an expedition sent against the Exarch of Ravenna, for reasons which elude historian today - though sheer madness cannot be ruled out. Upon arriving there the expedition led by Theodore sacked the city whilst his men deceptively invited the officials to a banquet where they were seized and sent to Constantinople. Upon arrival they were met by Justinian who had them all executed except the Archbishop, who nonetheless suffered a blinding and the usual exile - not being able to return until Justinian was in his grave. It was this execution that led to Ravenna being looted by Theodore and his men.
In Rome however the mood was calmed by the Pope Constantine the Syrian. Relations between the Pope and the Emperor had greatly improved - with the Emperor kissing the Pope's feet and sending an impressive delegation before him to meet the Pope (consisting of the Patriarch of Constantinople and Justinian's son and co-emperor). Arriving at Constantinople in 711 he came to an accord with Justinian finally approving half of the 102 canons still outstanding (dealing with the trivial matters he addressed before his exile) and agreeing to drop the other, perhaps less important canons. Satisfied he allowed the Pope a safe journey to Rome.

Cherson

Justinian then targeted his former place of exile in the Crimea. There his brother-in-law the Khagan had infringed on Imperial territory by establishing a Khazar governor of his own to run Cherson. Upon arriving there, the expedition set about doing its work - countless citizens were drowned (apparently with weights attached) and seven were roasted alive. The Tudon, the governor appointed by the Khagan was sent to Constantinople with 30 others. However a storm destroyed his army and his fleet when he ordered it to return. Justinian is said to have greeted the news with great laughter. Another fleet was sent but the arrival of the Khagan's army made Justinian reconsider his move to a more diplomatic one. He decided to send the Tudun back to the Khagan with his apologies and had George of Syria to present the Imperial apology. The citizens of Cherson were naturally in no mood to hear any apology after what Justinian had done. When the Tudun died along the way, the Khazars took it upon themselves to send his 300-strong escort to the afterlife with him.

Overthrow

After the fiasco of the Cherson expedition, the citizens there proclaimed a new man, Bardanes (an exiled General) the Basileus of Byzantium. Justinian was enraged at these turn of events. Once more he began redirecting resources to another expedition under the Patriarch Maurus against Cherson, resources that could have been better spent against the Arabs or the Bulgars. The Khazars appeared at the scene preventing the expedition from destroying no more than two defense towers before being obliged to make terms.The Patriarch realized that returning to the capital in defeat would undoubtedly lead to a violent retirement at the hands of Justinian. Therefore in a similar case to Leontius and Tiberius' usurption, he defected and with the army and navy under his command declared his support for the renegade Bardanes, who changed his name to Philippicus.
As Philippicus headed for the Capital Justinian was making his way to Armenia, a warzone between the Byzantines and Arabs. He reached as far as Nicomedia when attempting to turn back, he was caught at the twelfth mile stone of the Capital and executed on the spot. Philippicus had arrived before he could and was greeted with open arms at the Capital.
Theodora, the Khazar wife of Justinian II escaped to a nearby monastery with her son and former co-emperor Tiberius. The young boy was holding on to the True Cross when a soldier entered and forced his hand from it. It is said that the soldier then laid the Cross with great respect on the Altar. Following this rather pious act, he then dragged the boy outside and beneath the porch of a nearby church, butchered the line of Heraclius into extinction forever.