 27-03-2008 | #1 (mesaj-linki) | |
|  English LanguageEnglish Language English is a West Germanic language originating in England, and is the first language for most people in the Anglophone Caribbean, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States (sometimes referred to as the Anglosphere). It is used extensively as a second language and as an official language throughout the world, especially in Commonwealth countries and in many international organisations. A native or fluent speaker of English is known as an Anglophone. (f. L. Anglo "English" + Gk. phone "sound, speech"). Modern English is sometimes described as the first global lingua franca. English is the dominant international language in communications, science, business, aviation, entertainment, radio and diplomacy. The influence of the British Empire is the primary reason for the initial spread of the language far beyond the British Isles. Since World War II, the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States has significantly accelerated the adoption of English. A working knowledge of English is required in certain fields, professions, and occupations. As a result, over a billion people speak English at least at a basic level (see English language learning and teaching). English is one of six official languages of the United Nations. History English is an Anglo-Frisian language. Germanic-speaking peoples from northwest Germany (Saxons and Angles) and Jutland (Jutes) invaded what is now known as Eastern England around the fifth century AD. It is a matter of debate whether the Old English language spread by displacement of the original population, or the native Celts gradually adopted the language and culture of a new ruling class, or a combination of both of these processes (see Sub-Roman Britain). Whatever their origin, these Germanic dialects eventually coalesced to a degree (there remained geographical variation) and formed what is today called Old English. Old English loosely resembles some coastal dialects in what are now northwest Germany and the Netherlands (i.e., Frisia). Throughout the history of written Old English, it retained a synthetic structure closer to that of Proto-Indo-European, largely adopting West Saxon scribal conventions, while spoken Old English became increasingly analytic in nature, losing the more complex noun case system, relying more heavily on prepositions and fixed word order to convey meaning. This is evident in the Middle English period, when literature was to an increasing extent recorded with spoken dialectal variation intact, after written Old English lost its status as the literary language of the nobility. It has been postulated that English retains some traits from a Celtic substratum. Later, it was influenced by the related North Germanic language Old Norse, spoken by the Vikings who settled mainly in the north and the east coast down to London, the area known as the Danelaw. The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 greatly influenced the evolution of the language. For about 300 years after this, the Normans used Anglo-Norman, which was close to Old French, as the language of the court, law and administration. By the latter part of the fourteenth century, when English had replaced French as the language of law and government, Anglo-Norman borrowings had contributed roughly 10,000 words to English, of which 75% remain in use. These include many words pertaining to the legal and administrative fields, but also include common words for food, such as mutton, beef, and pork. However, the animals associated with these foods (e.g. sheep, cow, and swine ) retained their Saxon names, possibly because as a herd animal they were tended by Saxon serfs, while as food, they were more likely to be consumed at a Norman table. The Norman influence heavily influenced what is now referred to as Middle English. Later, during the English Renaissance, many words were borrowed directly from Latin (giving rise to a number of doublets) and Greek, leaving a parallel vocabulary that persists into modern times. By the seventeenth century there was a reaction in some circles against so-called inkhorn terms. During the fifteenth century, Middle English was transformed by the Great Vowel Shift, the spread of a prestigious South Eastern-based dialect in the court, administration and academic life, and the standardising effect of printing. Early Modern English can be traced back to around the Elizabethan period. Classification and related languages The English language belongs to the western sub-branch of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The question as to which is the nearest living relative of English is a matter of discussion. Apart from such English-lexified creole languages such as Tok Pisin, Scots (spoken primarily in Scotland and parts of Northern Ireland) is not a Gaelic language, but is part of the Anglic family of languages, having developed from early northern Middle English. It is Scots' indefinite status as a language or a group of dialects of English which complicates definitely calling it the closest language to English. The closest relatives to English after Scots are the Frisian languages, which are spoken in the Northern Netherlands and Northwest Germany. Other less closely related living West Germanic languages include German, Low Saxon, Dutch, and Afrikaans. The North Germanic languages of Scandinavia are less closely related to English than the West Germanic languages. Many French words are also intelligible to an English speaker (though pronunciations are often quite different) because English absorbed a large vocabulary from Norman and French, via Anglo-Norman after the Norman Conquest and directly from French in subsequent centuries. As a result, a large portion of English vocabulary is derived from French, with some minor spelling differences (word endings, use of old French spellings, etc.), as well as occasional divergences in meaning, in so-called "faux amis", or false friends. Geographical distribution Anglosphere: Countries and territories where English is the official, de facto official or primary national language. countries (in the case of Quebec: province) where English is an official language but not primary. English is also one of the official languages of the European Union.  Approximately 375 million people speak English as their first language, as of 2006.English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese Languages, depending on whether or not distinctions in the latter are classified as "languages" or "dialects."Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to over a billion depending on how literacy or mastery is defined.There are some who claim that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are, in descending order: United States (215 million), United Kingdom (58 million), Canada (17.7 million), Australia (15.5 million), Ireland (3.8 million),South Africa (3.7 million), and New Zealand (3.0-3.7 million). Countries such as Jamaica and Nigeria also have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from an English-based creole to a more standard version of English. Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, India has the most such speakers ('Indian English') and linguistics professor David Crystal claims that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world. Following India is the People's Republic of China. Distribution of native English speakers by country (Crystal 1997) Country Native speakers 1  United States 214,809,000 2  United Kingdom 58,200,000 3  Canada 17,694,830 4  Australia 15,581,334 5  Ireland 4,200,000+ (Approx) 6  South Africa 3,673,203 7  New Zealand 3,500,000+ (Approx 8  Singapore 665,087 English is the primary language in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Australia (Australian English), the Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Belize, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the British Virgin Islands, Canada (Canadian English), the Cayman Islands, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guam, Guernsey (Guernsey English), Guyana, Ireland (Hiberno-English), Isle of Man (Manx English), Jamaica (Jamaican English), Jersey, Montserrat, Nauru, New Zealand (New Zealand English), Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the United Kingdom, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the United States (various forms of American English).In many other countries, where English is not the most spoken language, it is an official language; these countries include Botswana, Cameroon, Dominica, Fiji, the Federated States of Micronesia, Ghana, Gambia, India, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Rwanda, the Solomon Islands, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. It is also one of the 11 official languages that are given equal status in South Africa (South African English). English is also the official language in current dependent territories of Australia (Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and Cocos Island) and of the United States (Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa and Puerto Rico), and in the former British colony of Hong Kong. English is an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom but falls short of official status, such as in Malaysia, Brunei, United Arab Emirates and Bahrain. English is also not an official language in either the United States or the United Kingdom. Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments. English as a global language Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a "global language", the lingua franca of the modern era. While English is not an official language in most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a second language around the world. Some linguists believe that it is no longer the exclusive cultural sign of "native English speakers", but is rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it continues to grow. It is, by international treaty, the official language for aerial and maritime communications, as well as one of the official languages of the European Union, the United Nations, and most international athletic organisations, including the International Olympic Committee. English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union (by 89% of schoolchildren), followed by French (32%), German (18%), and Spanish (8%). In the EU, a large fraction of the population reports being able to converse to some extent in English. Among non-English speaking countries, a large percentage of the population claimed to be able to converse in English in the Netherlands (87%), Sweden (85%), Denmark (83%), Luxembourg (66%), Finland (60%), Slovenia (56%), Austria (53%), Belgium (52%), and Germany (51%). Norway and Iceland also have a large majority of competent English-speakers. Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around the world. English is also the most commonly used language in the sciences. In 1997, the Science Citation Index reported that 95% of its articles were written in English, even though only half of them came from authors in English-speaking countries. Dialects and regional varieties The expansion of the British Empire and—since WWII—the primacy of the United States have spread English throughout the globe.Because of that global spread, English has developed a host of English dialects and English-based creole languages and pidgins. The major varieties of English include, in most cases, several subvarieties, such as Cockney slang within British English; Newfoundland English within Canadian English; and African American Vernacular English ("Ebonics") and Southern American English within American English. English is a pluricentric language, without a central language authority like France's Académie française; and, although no variety is clearly considered the only standard, there are a number of accents considered to be more prestigious, such as Received Pronunciation in Britain. Scots developed — largely independently — from the same origins, but following the Acts of Union 1707 a process of language attrition began, whereby successive generations adopted more and more features from English causing dialectalisation. Whether it is now a separate language or a dialect of English better described as Scottish English is in dispute. The pronunciation, grammar and lexis of the traditional forms differ, sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English. Because of the wide use of English as a second language, English speakers have many different accents, which often signal the speaker's native dialect or language. For the more distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see Regional accents of English speakers, and for the more distinctive characteristics of regional dialects, see List of dialects of the English language. Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English loanwords now appear in a great many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence of its speakers. Several pidgins and creole languages have formed using an English base, such as Jamaican Creole, Nigerian Pidgin, and Tok Pisin. There are many words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words. Franglais, for example, is used to describe French with a very high English word content; it is found on the Channel Islands. Another variant, spoken in the border bilingual regions of Québec in Canada, is called Frenglish. Constructed varieties of English
Phonology Vowels IPA Description word monophthongs i/iː Close front unrounded vowel bead ɪ Near-close near-front unrounded vowel bid ɛ Open-mid front unrounded vowel bed æ Near-open front unrounded vowel bad ɒ Open back rounded vowel box ɔ/ɑ Open-mid back rounded vowel pawed ɑ/ɑː Open back unrounded vowel bra ʊ Near-close near-back rounded vowel good u/uː Close back rounded vowel booed ʌ/ɐ/ɘ Open-mid back unrounded vowel, Near-open central vowel bud ɝ/ɜː Open-mid central unrounded vowel bird ə Schwa Rosa's ɨ Close central unrounded vowel roses diphthongs e(ɪ)/eɪ Close-mid front unrounded vowel Close front unrounded vowel bayed o(ʊ)/əʊ Close-mid back rounded vowel Near-close near-back rounded vowel bode aɪ Open front unrounded vowel Near-close near-front unrounded vowel cry aʊ Open front unrounded vowel Near-close near-back rounded vowel bough ɔɪ Open-mid back rounded vowel Close front unrounded vowel boy ʊɚ/ʊə Near-close near-back rounded vowel Schwa boor ɛɚ/ɛə/eɚ Open-mid front unrounded vowel Schwa fair 1 Notes: It is the vowels that differ most from region to region. Where symbols appear in pairs, the first corresponds to American English, General American accent; the second corresponds to British English, Received Pronunciation.
This is the English Consonantal System using symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). bilabial labio- dental dental alveolar post- alveolar palatal velar glottal plosive p b t d k ɡ nasal m n ŋ 1 flap ɾ 2 fricative f v θ ð 3 s z ʃ ʒ 4 ç 5 x 6 h affricate tʃ dʒ 4 approximant ɹ 4 j lateral approximant l labial-velar approximant ʍ w 7
Voicing and aspiration of stop consonants in English depend on dialect and context, but a few general rules can be given:
Tone groups English is an intonation language. This means that the pitch of the voice is used syntactically, for example, to convey surprise and irony, or to change a statement into a question. In English, intonation patterns are on groups of words, which are called tone groups, tone units, intonation groups or sense groups. Tone groups are said on a single breath and, as a consequence, are of limited length, more often being on average five words long or lasting roughly two seconds. For example: - /duː juː niːd ˈɛnɪˌθɪŋ/ Do you need anything?- /aɪ dəʊnt | nəʊ/ I don't, no- /aɪ dəʊnt nəʊ/ I don't know (contracted to, for example, - /aɪ dəʊnəʊ/ or /aɪ dənəʊ/ I dunno in fast or colloquial speech that de-emphasises the pause between don't and know even further) Characteristics of intonation English is a strongly stressed language, in that certain syllables, both within words and within phrases, get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not. The former kind of syllables are said to be accentuated/stressed and the latter are unaccentuated/unstressed. All good dictionaries of English mark the accentuated syllable(s) by either placing an apostrophe-like ( ˈ ) sign either before (as in IPA, Oxford English Dictionary, or Merriam-Webster dictionaries) or after (as in many other dictionaries) the syllable where the stress accent falls. Hence in a sentence, each tone group can be subdivided into syllables, which can either be stressed (strong) or unstressed (weak). The stressed syllable is called the nuclear syllable. For example: That | was | the | best | thing | you | could | have | done! Here, all syllables are unstressed, except the syllables/words best and done, which are stressed. Best is stressed harder and, therefore, is the nuclear syllable. The nuclear syllable carries the main point the speaker wishes to make. For example: John had not stolen that money. (... Someone else had.) John had not stolen that money. (... You said he had. or ... Not at that time, but later he did.) John had not stolen that money. (... He acquired the money by some other means.) John had not stolen that money. (... He had stolen some other money.) John had not stolen that money. (... He stole something else.) Also I did not tell her that. (... Someone else told her) I did not tell her that. (... You said I did. or ... but now I will) I did not tell her that. (... I did not say it; she could have inferred it, etc) I did not tell her that. (... I told someone else) I did not tell her that. (... I told her something else) This can also be used to express emotion: Oh really? (...I did not know that) Oh really? (...I disbelieve you. or ... That's blatantly obvious) The nuclear syllable is spoken more loudly than the others and has a characteristic change of pitch. The changes of pitch most commonly encountered in English are the rising pitch and the falling pitch, although the fall-rising pitch and/or the rise-falling pitch are sometimes used. In this opposition between falling and rising pitch, which plays a larger role in English than in most other languages, falling pitch conveys certainty and rising pitch uncertainty. This can have a crucial impact on meaning, specifically in relation to polarity, the positive–negative opposition; thus, falling pitch means "polarity known", while rising pitch means "polarity unknown". This underlies the rising pitch of yes/no questions. For example: When do you want to be paid?Now? (Rising pitch. In this case, it denotes a question: "Can I be paid now?" or "Do you desire to be paid now?") Now. (Falling pitch. In this case, it denotes a statement: "I choose to be paid now.") Grammar English grammar has minimal inflection compared with most other Indo-European languages. For example, Modern English, unlike Modern German or Dutch and the Romance languages, lacks grammatical gender and adjectival agreement. Case marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in pronouns. The patterning of strong (e.g. speak/spoke/spoken) versus weak verbs inherited from its Germanic origins has declined in importance in modern English, and the remnants of inflection (such as plural marking) have become more regular. At the same time, the language has become more analytic, and has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as rich resources for conveying meaning. Auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the passive voice and progressive aspect. Vocabulary The English vocabulary has changed considerably over the centuries. Like many languages deriving from Proto-Indo-European (PIE), many of the most common words in English can trace back their origin (through Germanic) to PIE. Such words include the basic pronouns I, originally ic, (cf. Latin ego, Greek ego, Sanskrit aham), me (cf. Latin me, Greek eme, Sanskrit mam), numbers (e.g. one, two, three, cf. Latin unus, duo, tres, Greek oios, duo, treis), common family relationships such as mother, father, brother, sister etc (cf. Greek "meter", Latin "mater", Sanskrit "matṛ"; mother), names of many animals (cf. Sankrit mus, Greek mys, Latin mus; mouse), and many common verbs (cf. Greek gignōmi, Latin gnoscere, Hittite kanes;to know). Germanic words (generally words of Old English or to a lesser extent Norse origin) tend to be shorter than the Latinate words of English, and more common in ordinary speech. The longer Latinate words are often regarded as more elegant or educated. However, the excessive use of Latinate words is considered at times to be either pretentious (as in the stereotypical policeman's talk of "apprehending the suspect") or an attempt to obfuscate an issue. George Orwell's essay "Politics and the English Language" is critical of this, as well as other perceived abuses of the language. An English speaker is in many cases able to choose between Germanic and Latinate synonyms: come or arrive; sight or vision; freedom or liberty. In some cases there is a choice between a Germanic derived word (oversee), a Latin derived word (supervise), and a French word derived from the same Latin word (survey). The richness of the language arises from the variety of different meanings and nuances such synonyms harbour, enabling the speaker to express fine variations or shades of thought. Familiarity with the etymology of groups of synonyms can give English speakers greater control over their linguistic register. See: List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents. An exception to this and a peculiarity perhaps unique to English is that the nouns for meats are commonly different from, and unrelated to, those for the animals from which they are produced, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French-derived one. Examples include: deer and venison; cow and beef; swine/pig and pork, or sheep and mutton. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman invasion, where a French-speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by Anglo-Saxon lower classes. Since the majority of words used in informal settings will normally be Germanic, such words are often the preferred choices when a speaker wishes to make a point in an argument in a very direct way. A majority of Latinate words (or at least a majority of content words) will normally be used in more formal speech and writing, such as a courtroom or an encyclopedia article[citation needed]. However, there are other Latinate words that are used normally in everyday speech and do not sound formal; these are mainly words for concepts that no longer have Germanic words, and are generally assimilated better and in many cases do not appear Latinate. For instance, the words mountain, valley, river, aunt, uncle, move, use, push and stay are all Latinate. English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and often imports new words and phrases. Examples of this phenomenon include: cookie, Internet and URL (technical terms), as well as genre, über, lingua franca and amigo (imported words/phrases from French, German, modern Latin, and Spanish, respectively). In addition, slang often provides new meanings for old words and phrases. In fact, this fluidity is so pronounced that a distinction often needs to be made between formal forms of English and contemporary usage. See also: sociolinguistics. Number of words in English English has an extraordinarily rich vocabulary and capacity to absorb and create new words. As the General Explanations at the beginning of the Oxford English Dictionary states: “ The Vocabulary of a widely diffused and highly cultivated living language is not a fixed quantity circumscribed by definite limits... there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of the English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference. ” The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly vast, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation. Unlike other languages, such as French, German, Spanish and Italian there is no Academy to define officially accepted words and spellings. Neologisms are coined regularly in medicine, science and technology and other fields, and new slang is constantly developed. Some of these new words enter wide usage; others remain restricted to small circles. Foreign words used in immigrant communities often make their way into wider English usage. Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might or might not be widely considered as "English". The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (OED2) includes over 600,000 definitions, following a rather inclusive policy: “ It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the OED, 1933). ” The editors of Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged (475,000 main headwords) in their preface, estimate the number to be much higher. It is estimated that about 25,000 words are added to the language each year. Word origins One of the consequences of the French influence is that the vocabulary of English is, to a certain extent, divided between those words which are Germanic (mostly West Germanic, with a smaller influence from the North Germanic branch) and those which are "Latinate" (Latin-derived, either directly from Norman French or other Romance languages). Numerous sets of statistics have been proposed to demonstrate the origins of English vocabulary. None, as yet, is considered definitive by most linguists. A computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd ed.) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973) that estimated the origin of English words as follows: Influences in English vocabulary
Words describing the navy, types of ships, and other objects or activities on the water are often from Dutch origin. Yacht (jacht) and cruiser (kruiser) are examples. French origins There are many words of French origin in English, such as competition, art, table, publicity, police, role, routine, machine, force, and many others that have been and are being anglicised; they are now pronounced according to English rules of phonology, rather than French. A large portion of English vocabulary is of French or Oïl language origin, most derived from, or transmitted via, the Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest. Writing system English has been written using the Latin alphabet since around the ninth century. (Before that, Old English had been written using the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc.) The spelling system, or orthography, is multilayered, with elements of French, Latin and Greek spelling on top of the native Germanic system; it has grown to vary significantly from the phonology of the language. The spelling of words often diverges considerably from how they are spoken. See English orthography. Basic sound-letter correspondence See also: Hard and soft C and Hard and soft G Only the consonant letters are pronounced in a relatively regular way: IPA Alphabetic representation Dialect-specific p p b b t t, th (rarely) thyme, Thames th thing (African-American, New York) d d th that (African-American, New York) k c (+ a, o, u, consonants), k, ck, ch, qu (rarely) conquer, kh (in foreign words) g g, gh, gu (+ a, e, i), gue (final position) m m n n ŋ n (before g or k), ng f f, ph, gh (final, infrequent) laugh, rough th thing (many forms of English used in England) v v th with (Cockney, Estuary English) θ th thick, think, through ð th that, this, the s s, c (+ e, i, y), sc (+ e, i, y), ç (façade) z z, s (finally or occasionally medially), ss (rarely) possess, dessert, word-initial x xylophone ʃ sh, sch, ti (before vowel) portion, ci/ce (before vowel) suspicion, ocean; si/ssi (before vowel) tension, mission; ch (esp. in words of French origin); rarely s/ss before u sugar, issue; chsi in fuchsia only ʒ medial si (before vowel) division, medial s (before "ur") pleasure, zh (in foreign words), z before u azure, g (in words of French origin) (+e, i, y) genre x kh, ch, h (in foreign words) occasionally ch loch (Scottish English, Welsh English) h h (syllable-initially, otherwise silent) tʃ ch, tch, t before u future, culture t (+ u, ue, eu) tune, Tuesday, Teutonic (several dialects - see yod coalescence) dʒ j, g (+ e, i, y), dg (+ e, i, consonant) badge, judg(e)ment d (+ u, ue, ew) dune, due, dew (several dialects - another example of yod coalescence) ɹ r, wr (initial) wrangle j y (initially or surrounded by vowels) l l w w ʍ wh (pronounced hw) Scottish and Irish English, as well as some varieties of American, New Zealand, and English English Written accents Unlike most other Germanic languages, English has almost no diacritics, except in foreign loanwords (like the acute accent in café) and in the uncommon use of a diaeresis mark (often in formal writing) to indicate that two vowels are pronounced separately, rather than as one sound (e.g. naïve, Zoë). In most cases it is acceptable to leave out the marks, especially in digital communications where the QWERTY keyboard lacks any marked letters. Formal written English A version of the language almost universally agreed upon by educated English speakers around the world is called formal written English. It takes virtually the same form no matter where in the English-speaking world it is written. In spoken English, by contrast, there are a vast number of differences between dialects, accents, and varieties of slang, colloquial and regional expressions. In spite of this, local variations in the formal written version of the language are quite limited, being restricted largely to the spelling differences between British and American English. Basic and simplified versions To make English easier to read, there are some simplified versions of the language. One basic version is named Basic English, a constructed language with a small number of words created by Charles Kay Ogden and described in his book Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar (1930). The language is based on a simplified version of English. Ogden said that it would take seven years to learn English, seven months for Esperanto, and seven weeks for Basic English, comparable with Ido. Thus Basic English is used by companies who need to make complex books for international use, and by language schools that need to give people some knowledge of English in a short time. Ogden did not put any words into Basic English that could be said with a few other words and he worked to make the words work for speakers of any other language. He put his set of words through a large number of tests and adjustments. He also made the grammar simpler, but tried to keep the grammar normal for English users. The concept gained its greatest publicity just after the Second World War as a tool for world peace. Although it was not built into a program, similar simplifications were devised for various international uses. Another version, Simplified English, exists, which is a controlled language originally developed for aerospace industry maintenance manuals. It offers a carefully limited and standardised subset of English. Simplified English has a lexicon of approved words and those words can only be used in certain ways. For example, the word close can be used in the phrase "Close the door" but not "do not go close to the landing gear". . Son Düzenleyen Hi-LaL; 31-08-2008 @ 22:34. | |
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Hi-LaL
| 27-03-2008 | #2 (mesaj-linki) | |
| English in Computing English in computing From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Though the history of computer science began long before the twentieth century, this discipline as it is modernly known has mainly been developed after the World War II in the United States. As a consequence, English is the lingua franca in computing and on the Internet, and the computing vocabulary of many languages is directly borrowed from English.
In many languages, Greek and Latin roots constitute an important part of the scientific vocabulary. This is especially true for the terms referring to fields of science. For example, the equivalent words for mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, and genealogy are roughly the same in many languages. As for computer science, numerous words in many languages are from American English, and the vocabulary can evolve very quickly. An exception to this trend is the word referring to computer science itself, which in many European languages is roughly the same as the English informatics: German: Informatik; French: informatique; Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese: informatica; Polish: informatyka' German In German, English words are very often used as well:
In French, English words are generally understood. In practice, some of them are used as well and others are translated thanks to some efforts of the Académie française and the OQLF. obsolete words
The Icelandic language has its own vocabulary of scientific terms, still English borrowings exist. English or Icelandicised words are mostly used in casual conversations, whereas the Icelandic words might be longer or not widespread. Russian
The first character encodings were designed for the English language:
Though almost all programming languages use English keywords, in the absolute it is possible to write code in every natural languages. Here are some examples of non-English programming languages:
Software BIOS Almost all the computers on Earth have a BIOS in English, though sometimes it may also be translated into the local language of the country where the computer is sold. Keyboard shortcut Keyboard shortcuts are usually defined after English keywords such as CTRL+F for find. Weak point of the English language Like most of the natural languages, the English language has some ambiguities. In the context of computing, the ambiguousness of certain words may be more embarrassing:
English is the predominant language on the Internet— content and English-language users—has fueled the rise of the Internet as a means of communication, information dissemination and entertainment. This article details statistics of Internet linguistic patterns and their impact. In considering which languages dominate the Internet, two statistics are considered: the first language of Internet users and the language of actual material posted on the web. English speakers Internet-user percentages usually focus on raw comparisons of the first language of those who access the Internet. Just as important is a consideration of second- and foreign-language users; i.e., the first language of a user does not necessarily reflect which language they regularly employ when using the Internet. Native speakers English-language users appear to be a plurality of Internet users, consistently cited as around one-third of the overall (near one billion). This reflects the relative affluence of English-speaking countries and high Internet penetration rates in them. This lead may be eroding due mainly to a rapid increase of Chinese users, which broadly parallels China's advance on other economic fronts. In fact, if first-language speakers are compared, Chinese ought, in time, to outstrip English by a wide margin (837+ million for Mandarin Chinese, 370+ million for English). First-language users among other relatively affluent countries appear generally stable, the two largest being German and Japanese, which each have between 5% and 10% of the overall share. As a foreign language If a gradual decline in English first-language users is inevitable, it does not necessarily follow that English will not continue to be the language of choice for those accessing the Internet. There is an enormous pool of English second-language speakers who employ the language in technical, governmental and educational spheres and access the Internet in English. A classic example of this scenario is India, the world's second most populated country. With economic growth, English has begun exploding as the emerging lingua franca in India. In 1995 it was thought that perhaps only 4% of the population was truly fluent in English (still an impressive 40 million).A decade later, by 2005, India had the world's largest English-speaking and understanding population and second largest "Fluent English" speaking population (led only by U.S.). It is expected to have the world's largest number of English speakers within a decade. Chinese is rarely employed as a lingua franca outside of China by non-ethnic Chinese; even countries bordering the country or with large Chinese minorities (Mongolia, South Korea, Malaysia) tend toward English as a commercial and educational language. Further, China is not truly monoglot: Standard Mandarin is official but different spoken variants of Chinese are often mutually unintelligible; the diaspora disproportionately speaks Cantonese. There is, however, an existing written standard that serves as a common written language. In the future, then, English and Chinese may have roughly equal positions at the top of the overall Internet first-language users, but English will likely continue to dominate as the default choice for those accessing the Internet in a second language. Other world languages that could conceivably begin to challenge English include Spanish and Arabic, though it remains to be seen if these, too, will be largely isolated to first-language speakers on the Internet as is Chinese. Internet content One widely quoted figure for the amount of web content in English is 80%. Other sources show figures five to fifteen points lower, though still well over 50%. There are two notable facts about these percentages: The English web content is greater than the amount of first-language English users by as much as 2 to 1. Given the enormous lead it already enjoys and its increasing use as lingua franca in other spheres, English web content may continue to dominate even as English first-language Internet users decline. This is a classic positive feedback loop: new Internet users find it helpful to learn English and employ it on-line, thus reinforcing the language's prestige and forcing subsequent new users to learn English as well. Certain other factors (some predating the medium's appearance) have propelled English into a majority web-content position. Most notable in this regard is the tendency for researchers and professionals to publish in English to ensure maximum exposure. The largest database of medical bibliographical information, for example, shows English was the majority language choice for the past forty years and its share has continually increased over the same period. The fact that non-Anglophones regularly publish in English only reinforces the language's dominance. English has the richest technical vocabulary of any language (largely because native and non-native speakers alike use it to communicate technical ideas), and so many IT and technical professionals use English regardless of country of origin (Linus Torvalds, for instance, comments his code in English, despite being from Finland). . Son Düzenleyen Hi-LaL; 31-08-2008 @ 22:36. | |
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| 27-03-2008 | #3 (mesaj-linki) | |
| Cvp: English Language Basic English From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Basic English is an attempted core subset of the English language created by Charles Kay Ogden and described in his book Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar (1930). The language is based on a simplified version of English, in essence a subset of it. Basic English is used by groups who need to make complex books for international use, and by language schools that need to give people some knowledge of English in a short time.Ogden did not put any words into Basic English that could be paraphrased with other words, and he attempted to make the words work for speakers of any other language. He put his set of words through a large number of tests and adjustments. He also simplified the grammar but tried to keep it normal for English users. The concept gained its greatest publicity just after the Second World War as a tool for world peace. Although it was not built into a program, similar simplifications were devised for various international uses. I. A. Richards was a forceful advocate of the use of Basic English, and lobbied the government of China to teach it in schools there. More recently, it has influenced the creation of Simplified English, a standardized version of English intended for the writing of technical manuals.
Ogden's rules of grammar for Basic English allow people to use the 850 words to talk about things and events in the normal English way.
In the future history book The Shape of Things to Come, published in 1933, H.G. Wells depicted Basic English as the lingua franca of a new elite which after a prolonged struggle succeeds in uniting the world and establishing a world government. In the future world of Wells' vision, virtually all members of humanity know this language. From 1942 until 1944 George Orwell was a proponent of Basic English, but in 1945 he became critical of universal language. The language later inspired his use of Newspeak in Nineteen Eighty-Four. Noted science fiction author Robert A. Heinlein used a form of Basic English in his story "Gulf" as a language appropriate for a race of genius supermen. [edit] Word lists The 850 core words of Basic English are found in Wiktionary's Appendix:Basic English word list. In addition to this core 850, there are lists used to expand the vocabulary used in any given piece to 1,000 words. This is accomplished by adding a word list of 100 words particularly useful in a general field (e.g., science, verse, business, etc.), along with a 50-word list from a more specialized subset of that general field. Other forms of English
Son Düzenleyen Blue Blood; 27-03-2008 @ 16:46. | |
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| 27-03-2008 | #4 (mesaj-linki) | |
| Cvp: English Language E-Prime From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the interactive-experiment design software, see E-Prime (software). In linguistics, E-Prime is a modified English syntax and vocabulary lacking all forms of the verb to be: be, is, **, are, was, were, been and being, and also their contractions. Sentences composed in E-Prime are therefore less likely to contain the passive voice, and can force the writer or speaker to think differently, possibly making their written text easier to read. By eliminating most uses of the passive mode, E-Prime requires the writer to explicitly acknowledge the agent of a sentence. Some regard E-Prime as a variant of the English language, while others consider it a mental discipline to filter their own speech and translate the speech of others. For example, the sentence "the movie was good" can become "I liked the movie" using the rules of E-Prime, which communicates the subjective nature of the speaker's experience rather than directly imparting a quality to the movie. Using E-Prime makes it harder for a writer or reader to confuse statements of opinion with statements of fact.
D. David Bourland, Jr. (1928-2000) proposed E-Prime as an addition to Alfred Korzybski's General Semantics, some years after Korzybski's death in 1950. Bourland, who studied under Korzybski, coined the term in a 1965 essay entitled A Linguistic Note: Writing in E-Prime (originally published in the General Semantics Bulletin). It quickly gained controversy within general semantics, partly because sometimes practitioners of General Semantics saw Bourland as attacking the verb 'to be' as such, and not just certain usages. He collected and published three volumes of essays in support of his innovation. The first bore the title: To Be or Not: An E-Prime Anthology : 1991, San Francisco: International Society for General Semantics, edited by D. David Bourland, Jr. and Paul Dennithorne Johnston. For the second, More E-Prime: To Be or Not II: 1994, Concord, California: International Society for General Semantics, he added a third editor, Jeremy Klein. Bourland and Johnston edited a third book E-Prime III: a third anthology: 1997, Concord, California: International Society for General Semantics. Korzybski (1879-1950) had decided that two forms of the verb 'to be'—the 'is' of identity and the 'is' of predication—had structural problems. For example, the sentence "The coat is red" has no observer, the sentence "We see the coat as red" (where "we" indicates observers) appears more specific in context as regards light waves and colour as determined by modern science, that is, colour results from a reaction in the human brain. Korzybski pointed out the circularity of many dictionary definitions, and suggested adoption of the convention, then recently introduced among mathematicians, of acknowledging some minimal ensemble of terms as necessarily 'undefined'; he chose 'structure', 'order', and 'relation'. He wrote of those that they do not lend themselves to explication in words, but only by exhibiting how to use them in sentences. Korzybski advocated raising one's awareness of structural issues generally through training in general semantics. Different functions of 'to be' In the English language, the verb 'to be' has several distinct functions:
Rationale E-Prime forces a writer to choose verbs and meanings carefully: the elimination of "to be" implicitly eliminates the passive voice and progressive aspect. Some defective verbs, such as "can", use paraphrases involving "to be" in some tenses and moods. This constraint alone accounts for much of the appeal of E-Prime to some of its advocates, since many stylists argue that such constructions occur too frequently in sloppy English writing. Of course it may also generate difficulties for some writers as they learn to use E-Prime. Bourland and other advocates also suggest that use of E-Prime leads to a less dogmatic style of language that reduces the possibility for misunderstanding and for conflict.[1] Note that some languages already treat equivalents of the verb "to be" very differently without giving any obvious advantages to their speakers. For instance, Arabic, like Russian, already lacks a verb form of "to be" in the present tense. If one wanted to assert, in Arabic, that an apple looks red, one would not literally say "the apple is red", but "the apple red". In other words, speakers can communicate the verb form of "to be", with its semantic advantages and disadvantages, even without the existence of the word itself. Thus they do not resolve the ambiguities that E-Prime seeks to alleviate without an additional rule, such as that all sentences must contain a verb. Similarly, the Ainu language consistently does not distinguish between "be" and "become"; thus ne means both "be" and "become", and pirka means "good", "be good", and "become good" equally. Many languages—for instance Japanese, Spanish, and Hebrew—already distinguish "existence"/"location" from "identity"/"predication". E-Prime and Charles Kay Ogden's Basic English lack compatibility because Basic English has a closed set of verbs, excluding verbs such as "become", "remain", and "equal" that E-Prime uses to describe precise states of being. Changes such as those proposed for E-Prime also might eliminate enough ways to express aspect in African American Vernacular English to prove unworkable if applied indiscriminately to such language. Alfred Korzybski has criticized the use of the verb "to be", and has said that "any proposition containing the word 'is' [or its other conjugations 'are,' be' etc] creates a linguistic structural confusion which will eventually give birth to serious fallacies"[citation needed]. However, he also justified the phrase "the map is not the territory", which he coined: "the denial of identification (as in 'is not') has opposite neuro-linguistic effects on the brain from the assertion of identity (as in 'is')." Noam Chomsky, widely regarded as the father of modern linguistics, has commented on Korzybski's criticism, addressing the fact that Korzybski seemed to have changed his mind. Chomsky said: "Sometimes what we say can be misleading, sometimes not, depending on whether we are careful. If there's anything else [in Korzybski's work], I don't see it. That was the conclusion of my undergrad papers 60 years ago. Reading Korzybski extensively, I couldn't find anything that was not either trivial or false. As for neuro-linguistic effects on the brain, nothing was known when he wrote and very little of that is relevant now." Discouraged forms To be falls in the set of irregular verbs in English; some individuals, especially those who have learned English as a second language, may have difficulty recognizing all its forms. In addition, speakers of colloquial English frequently contract to be after pronouns or before the word not. E-Prime would prohibit the following words as forms of to be:
E-prime does not prohibit the following words, because they do not derive from forms of to be. Some of these serve similar grammatical functions (see auxiliary verbs).
The following words may either look (homograph) or sound (homophone) like a form of the word to be, but they do not have the same meaning.
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| 27-03-2008 | #5 (mesaj-linki) | |
| Cvp: English Language English language in Europe From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The English language in Europe, as a native language, is mainly spoken in the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) and the Republic of Ireland. Outside of these countries, it has a special status in Jersey and Guernsey (two of the three Crown Dependencies), in Gibraltar (one of the British overseas territories), Malta and Cyprus (two former British colonies). In other parts of Europe, English is also spoken natively, to a lesser extent, by expats from the English speaking world and mainly by those who have learned it as a second language. The English language is the official language of Gibraltar and one of the official languages of the Republic of Ireland, Malta, Guersney, Jersey, the Isle of Man and the European Union. 13% of EU citizens speak English as their native language. Another 38% of EU citizens state that they have sufficient skills in English to have a conversation.
History of English in England English is descended from the language spoken by the Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, around 449 AD, Vortigern, King of the Britons, issued an invitation to the "Angle kin" (Angles, led by Hengest and Horsa) to help him against the Picts. In return, the Angles were granted lands in the southeast. Further aid was sought, and in response "came men of Ald Seaxum of Anglum of Iotum" (Saxons, Angles, and Jutes). The Chronicle documents the subsequent influx of "settlers" who eventually established seven kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Wessex. These Germanic invaders dominated the original Celtic-speaking inhabitants. The dialects spoken by these invaders formed what would be called Old English, which was also strongly influenced by yet another Germanic dialect, Old Norse, spoken by Viking invaders who settled mainly in the North-East. English, England, and East Anglia are derived from words referring to the Angles: Englisc, Angelcynn, and Englaland. For the 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Anglo-Norman language was the language of administration and few Kings of England spoke English. A large number of French words were assimilated into Old English, which also lost most of its inflections, the result being Middle English. Around the year 1500, the Great Vowel Shift transformed Middle English into Modern English. The most famous surviving work from Old English is Beowulf, and from Middle English is Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. The rise of Modern English began around the time of William Shakespeare. Some scholars divide early Modern English and late Modern English at around 1800, in concert with British conquest of much of the rest of the world, as the influence of native languages affected English enormously. Classification and related languages English belongs to the western sub-branch of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The closest undoubted living relatives of English are Scots and the Frisian languages. Frisian languages are spoken by approximately half a million people in the Dutch province of Friesland (Fryslân), in nearby areas of Germany, and on a few islands in the North Sea. After Scots and Frisian, the next closest relative is modern Low German of the eastern Netherlands and northern Germany. Other less closely related living languages include Dutch, Afrikaans, German and the Scandinavian languages. Many French words are also intelligible to an English speaker, as English absorbed a tremendous amount of vocabulary from the Norman language after the Norman conquest and from French in further centuries; as a result, a substantial share of English vocabulary is very close to the French, with some slight spelling differences (word endings, use of old French spellings, etc.) and some occasional lapses in meaning. The spread of English in Britain, Ireland and the Isle of Man Wales The English language was spread through Europe, as indeed throughout the world, by British colonial expansion. Unrelated to that is the matter of what some claim is the oldest of the English colonies after Cornwall: Wales. In 1282 Edward I of England defeated Llywelyn the Last, Wales's last independent prince, in battle. Edward followed the practice used by his Norman predecessors in their subjugation of the English, and constructed a series of great stone castles in order to control Wales, thus preventing further military action against England by the Welsh. With ‘English’ political control at this time came Anglo-Norman customs and language; English did not displace Welsh as the majority language of the Welsh people until the anti Welsh language campaigns, which began towards the end of the 19th century (54% spoke Welsh in 1891; see Welsh language). The Welsh language has been enjoying support from the authorities for some decades, resulting in a revival, and is in a healthy position in many parts of Wales. Ireland Some say the second oldest English dominion was Ireland. With the arrival of the Normans in Ireland in 1169, Anglo-Norman King Henry II of England gained Irish lands and the fealty of many native Gaelic nobles. Initially, English (or rather Anglo-Norman) rule was largely limited to the area around Dublin known as the Pale, but this was expanded in the 16th century by the Tudors, with the collapse of the social and political superstructure (see the Brethren Laws) at the end of the 17th century. The Flight of the Earls in 1607 paved the way for the Plantation of Ulster, bringing with it a deepening of the English language culture in Ireland. The Cromwellian Plantation and suppression of Catholicism (including both native Irish and Anglo-Irish (of Anglo-Norman descent)) further cemented English influence across the country. As the centuries passed and the social conditions in Ireland deteriorated, culminating in the Great Irish Famine, many parents refused to speak Irish to their children as they knew that the children might have to emigrate and Irish would be of no use outside the home country, in Britain, the US, Australia or Canada. In addition, the introduction of universal state education in the late 19th century proved a powerful vector for the transmission of English as a home language, with the greatest retreat of the Irish language occurring in the period between 1850 and 1900. By the 20th century, Ireland had a centuries-old history of diglossia. English was the prestige language while the Irish language was associated with poverty and disfranchisement. Accordingly, some Irish who spoke both Irish and English refrained from teaching their children Irish, or, in extreme cases, feigned the inability to speak Irish themselves. Despite state support for the Irish language in the Republic of Ireland after independence, Irish continued to retreat, the economic marginality of many Irish speaking areas (see Gaeltacht) being a primary factor. For this reason Irish is spoken as a mother tongue by only a very small number of people on the island of Ireland. Although Irish has been a compulsory subject in schools in the Republic since the 1920s, and proficiency in Irish is required for a number of government jobs, English is the only language used in everyday situations for 98% of the population. It may be noted, however, that certain words (especially those germane to civic life) in Irish remain features of Irish life and are rarely, if ever, translated into English. These include the names of legislative bodies (such as the Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann), government positions (such as Taoiseach and Teachta Dála), and political parties (such as Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael). The Republic of Ireland's law-enforcement community, the Garda Síochána, are referred to as "the guards" for short. Irish appears on government forms, currency, and postage stamps, in traditional music and in media promoting folk culture. Irish place names are still common for houses, streets, villages, and geographic features. But other than these few exceptions, and despite the presence of Irish loan words in Hiberno-English, Ireland is today largely an English-speaking country. Ireland is also the only member State in the eurozone that has English as a co-official language (with Irish on a par), and the only English-speaking country to use the euro. In Ireland, the plural of "euro" is "euro" and the plural of (euro)"cent" is "cent" - unlike the plural of (dollar) "cent", which is "cents". The only area of Northern Ireland which was predominantly Irish-speaking at partition, the remoter areas of the Sperrin Mountains, had become entirely English-speaking by 1950. There were however older segments of the population in Southern Armagh an also in the Antrim Glens. In recent decades, some Catholics in Northern Ireland have used it in slogans promoting an Irish identity . The amount of interest from Protestants remains low, particularly since the 1960s. Certain members of the Republican movement have attempted to forward their cause by using Irish since the late 1980s (see "The Troubles"), though this has been viewed with skepticism by many as to their genuine motives. Now Irish is only spoken by about 165,000 people in Northern Ireland who have predominantly learned it as a second language. Otherwise, except for place names and folk music, English is effectively the sole language of Northern Ireland. Scotland Anglic speakers were actually established in Lothian by the 7th century, but remained confined there, and indeed contracted slightly to the advance of the Gaelic language. However, during the 12th and 13th centuries, Norman landowners and their retainers, were invited to settle by the king. It is probable that many of their retainers spoke a northern form of Middle English, although probably French was more common. Most of the evidence suggests that English spread into Scotland via the burgh, proto-urban institutions which were first established by King David I. Incoming burghers were mainly English (especially from Northumbria, and the Earldom of Huntingdon), Flemish and French. Although the military aristocracy employed French and Gaelic, these small urban communities appear to have been using English as something more than a lingua franca by the end of the 13th century. English appeared in Scotland for the first time in literary form in the mid-14th century, when its form unsurprisingly differed little from other northern English dialects. As a consequence of the outcome of the Wars of Independence though, the English of Lothian who lived under the King of Scots had to accept Scottish identity. The growth in prestige of English in the 14th century, and the complementary decline of French in Scotland, made English the prestige language of most of eastern Scotland. Thus, from the end of the 14th century, and certainly by the end of the 15th century, Scotland began to show a split into two cultural areas – the mainly English or Lowland Scots lowlands, and the mainly-Gaelic speaking highlands (which then could be thought to include Galloway and Carrick; see Galwegian language). This caused divisions in the country where the Lowlands remained, historically, more influenced by the English to the south: the Lowlands lay more open to attack by invading armies from the south and absorbed English influence through their proximity to and their trading relations with their southern neighbours. In 1603 the Scottish King James VI inherited the throne of England, and became James I of England. James moved to London and only returned once to Scotland. By the time of James VI's accession to the English throne the old Scottish Court and Parliament spoke Lowland Scots. Lowland Scots developed from the Anglian spoken in the Northumbrian kingdom of Bernicia, which in the 6th century conquered the Brythonic kingdom of Gododdin and renamed its capital of Dunedin to Edinburgh. Lowland Scots continues to heavily influence the spoken English of the Scottish people today. It is much more similar to dialects in the north of England, than to 'British' English, even today. The introduction of King James Version of the Bible into Scottish churches also was a blow to Lowland Scots, since it used Southern English forms. In 1707 the Scottish and English Parliaments signed a Treaty of Union. Implementing the treaty involved dissolving both the English and the Scottish Parliaments, and transferring all their powers to a new Parliament in London which then became the British Parliament. A customs and currency union also took place. With this, Scotland's position was consolidated within the United Kingdom. Today, almost all residents of Scotland speak English, although many speak various Lowland Scots dialects which differ markedly from Scottish Standard English. Approximately 2% of the population use Scottish Gaelic as their language of everyday use, primarily in the northern and western regions of the country. Virtually all Scottish Gaelic speakers also speak fluent English. Isle of Man The Isle of Man is a Crown Dependency. English and Manx Gaelic are the two official languages. English in other British or formerly British territories Channel Islands The bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey are two Crown Dependencies. Besides English, some (very few) inhabitants of these islands speak regional languages[citation needed], or those related to French (such as Jèrriais, Dgèrnésiais and Sercquiais). All inhabitants of the populated Channel Islands (Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark) speak English. Gibraltar Gibraltar has been a British overseas territory since an Anglo-Dutch force led by Sir George Rooke seized "The Rock" in 1704 and Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to Great Britain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. The small territory's Gibraltarian inhabitants have a rich cultural heritage as a result of the mix of the neighbouring Andalusian population with immigrants from Genoa, Malta, Portugal, Morocco and India. The vernacular language of the territory is Llanito. It consists of an eclectic mix of Andalusian Spanish and British English as well as languages such as Maltese, Portuguese, Italian of the Genoese variety and Haketia. Even though Andalusian Spanish is the main constituent of Llanito, it is also heavily influenced by British English, involving a certain amount of code-switching into English. However, English remains the sole official language, used by Government. It is also the medium of instruction in schools and most Gibraltarians who go on to tertiary education do so in the UK. Although Gibraltar receives Spanish television and radio, British television is also widely available via satellite. Whereas a century ago, most Gibraltarians were monolingual Spanish speakers, the majority is now naturally bilingual in English and Spanish. Cyprus In 1914 the Ottoman Empire declared war against the United Kingdom and France as part of the complex series of alliances that led to World War I. The British then annexed Cyprus on 2 November 1914 as part of the British Empire, making the Cypriots British subjects. On 5 November 1914 the British and the French declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Cyprus gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1960, with the UK, Greece and Turkey retaining limited rights to intervene in internal affairs. The British colonial history of Cyprus has left Cypriots with a good level of English but it is no longer an official language in either the Greek-dominated Republic of Cyprus or the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Since the effective partition of the island in 1974, Greek and Turkish Cypriots have had little opportunity to learn the other's language, and are more likely to understand English. Knowledge of English is also helped by the large Cypriot migrant communities in the UK and Australia, leading to diffusion of culture and language back to their country of origin. There is a large British expatriate population, in addition to the British military presence in the Sovereign Base Areas, plus the UN buffer zone, whose peacekeepers usually use English as a lingua franca. All this maintains an English-speaking presence on the island. Malta In 1814, Malta voluntarily became part of the British Empire, under the terms of the Treaty of Vienna. Prior to the arrival of the British, the language of the educated Maltese elite had been Italian, and all legal statutes, taxation, education, and clerical discourses were conducted either in Italian or in Latin. However, this was increasingly downgraded by the increased use of English. The British began scripting and codifying Maltese – hitherto an unscripted vernacular – as a language in or around 1868. From this point on, the Maltese language gradually gained currency as the main language on the islands, its grammars and conventions evolving in a mix between Italian, Arabic, and English. Between the 1870s and 1930s, Malta had three official languages, Italian, Maltese, and English, but in 1934, English and Maltese were declared the sole official languages. The British associated Italian with the Mussolini regime in Italy, which had made territorial claims on the islands, although the use of Italian by nationalists was more out of cultural affinities with Italy than any sympathy with Italian Fascism. With the outbreak of the war, the Maltese lost their sense of fraternity with the Italian world, and there was a decline in Italian spoken in Malta. English remains an official language in Malta, but since independence in 1964, the country's cultural and commercial links with Italy have strengthened, owing to proximity. Italian television is widely received in Malta and is highly popular. Other countries in contemporary Europe There are also pockets of native English speakers to be found throughout Europe, such as in southern Spain, the Algarve in Portugal, the Netherlands as well as numerous U.S. and British military bases in Germany. As well as some English speaking Caribbean, African, Asian and Oceanic communities who live throughout Europe. There are communities of native English speakers in all the main European cities, e.g. Amsterdam, Berlin, Brussels, Barcelona, Paris and Milan. Sectors of tourism, publishing, finance, computers and related industries rely heavily on English due to Anglophone trade ties. Air traffic control and shipping movements are almost all conducted in English. In areas of Europe where English is not the first language, there are many examples of the mandated primacy of English: for example, some companies, such as Renault, have designated English to be the language of communication for their senior management, and many universities in the Netherlands teach only in English. The language is also a required subject in most European schools. While shown grey on the map, as they are outside the European Union, Switzerland, Iceland and Norway also have high percentages of English speakers. English as lingua franca English is a lingua franca in parts of Western and Northern Europe. In the EU25, working knowledge of English as a foreign language is clearly leading at 38%, followed by German and French (at 14% each), Russian (6%), Spanish (6%) and Italian (3%). Working knowledge of English is particularly high in Scandinavia (Denmark 86%, Sweden 89%) and the Netherlands (87%). In Eastern and Southern Europe, working knowledge of English is lower, around 20-30%. On average, 38% of citizens of the European Union (excluding the United Kingdom and Ireland) stated that they have sufficient knowledge of English to have a conversation. | |
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| 28-03-2008 | #6 (mesaj-linki) | |
| Cvp: English Language History of the English language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers and Roman auxiliary troops from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the Northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion. The first was by language speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family; they conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries. The second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old French and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication). Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary.
The Germanic tribes who gave rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes and perhaps even the Franks), traded with and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire in the centuries-long process of the Germanic peoples' expansion into Western Europe from the East. Many Latin words for common objects therefore entered the vocabulary of these Germanic people even before any of these tribes reached Britain; examples include camp, cheese, cook, fork, inch, kettle, kitchen, linen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pin, pound, punt (boat), street, and wall. The Romans also gave English words which they had themselves borrowed from other languages: anchor, butter, chest, devil, dish, sack and wine. Our main source for the culture of the Germanic peoples, who are the ancestors of the English, in ancient times is Tacitus' Germania. While remaining quite conversant with Roman civilization and its economy, including serving in the Roman military, they retained political independence. We can be certain that Germanic settlement in Britain was not intensified until the time of Hengist and Horsa in the Fifth Century, since had the English arrived en-masse under Roman rule, they would have been thoroughly Christianized as a matter of course and of Roman law. As it was, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes arrived as pagans, independent of Roman control. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, around the year 449, Vortigern (or Gwrtheyrn from the Welsh tradition), King of the Britons, invited the "Angle kin" (Angles led by Hengest and Horsa) to help him in conflicts with the Picts. In return, the Angles were granted lands in the southeast of England. Further aid was sought and in response "came men of Ald Seaxum of Anglum of Iotum" (Saxons, Angles and Jutes). The Chronicle talks of a subsequent influx of settlers who eventually established seven kingdoms, known as the heptarchy. Modern scholarship considers most of this story to be legendary and politically motivated and the identification of the tribes with the Angles, Saxons and Jutes is no longer accepted as an accurate description (Myres, 1986, p. 46ff), especially since the Anglo-Saxon language is more similar to the Frisian languages than any single one of the others. Old English The invaders' Germanic language displaced the indigenous Brythonic languages of what became England. The original Celtic languages remained in Scotland, Wales and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings who invaded and settled mainly in the northeast of England (see Jórvík and Danelaw). The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distinct, including the prefix, suffix and inflection patterns for many of their words. The Germanic language of these Old English speaking inhabitants of Britain was influenced by contact with Norse invaders, which might have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns). The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is a fragment of the epic poem "Beowulf", by an unknown poet, though substantially modified, likely by one or more Christian clerics long after its composition. The period when England was ruled by Anglo-Saxon kings, with the assistance of Anglo-Saxon clergy, was a period when the Old English language was alive and growing. Since it was used for legal, political, religious and other intellectual purposes, Old English coined new words from native Anglo-Saxon roots, rather than "borrowing" foreign words. (This point is made in a standard text, The History of the English Language, by Baugh.) The introduction of Christianity added another wave of Latin and some Greek words. The Old English period formally ended with the Norman conquest, when the language was influenced, to an even greater extent, by the Norman-speaking Normans. The use of Anglo-Saxon to describe a merging of Anglian and Saxon languages and cultures is a relatively modern development. According to Lois Fundis, (Stumpers-L, Fri, 14 Dec 2001) "The first citation for the second definition of 'Anglo-Saxon', referring to early English language or a certain dialect thereof, comes during the reign of Elizabeth I, from a historian named Camden, who seems to be the person most responsible for the term becoming well-known in modern times." Middle English For about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only a variety of French called Anglo-Norman. English continued to be the language of the common people. Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years of the invasion most of the Normans outside the royal court had switched to English, with French remaining the prestige language of government and law largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language. A tendency for French-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic). Another homely example is that of the names for meats, such as beef and pork from French boeuf and porc. The animals from which the meats come are called by Anglo Saxon words, such as cow and pig. This might be because Anglo-Saxon peasants raised the animals; Norman-French lords ate the meat. While the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle continued until 1154, most other literature from this period was in Old French or Latin. A large number of Norman words were taken into Old English, with many doubling for Old English words (examples include, ox/beef, sheep/mutton and so on). The Norman influence reinforced the continued changes in the language over the following centuries, producing what is now referred to as Middle English. Among the changes was an increase in the use of a unique aspect of English grammar, the "continuous" tenses, with the suffix "-ing". English spelling was also influenced by French in this period, with the /θ/ and /ð/ sounds being spelled th rather than with the Old English letters þ (thorn) and ð (eth), which did not exist in French. The most famous writer from the Middle English period is Geoffrey Chaucer and of his works, The Canterbury Tales is the best known. English literature started to reappear ca 1200, when a changing political climate and the decline in Anglo-Norman made it more respectable. The Provisions of Oxford, released in 1258, were the first English government document to be published in the English language since the Conquest.[1] Edward III became the first king to address Parliament in English when he did so in 1362.[2] By the end of that century, even the royal court had switched to English. Anglo-Norman remained in use in limited circles somewhat longer, but it had ceased to be a living language. Early Modern English Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift, which took place mainly during the 15th century. English was further transformed by the spread of a standardised London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardising effect of printing. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century) the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English. English has continuously adopted foreign words, especially from Latin and Greek, since the Renaissance. (In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with the original inflections, but these eventually disappeared.) As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country. In 1755 Samuel Johnson published the first significant English dictionary, his Dictionary of the English Language. Historic English text samples Old English Beowulf lines 1 to 11, approximately AD 900 Hwæt! Wē Gār-Dena in geārdagum, þēodcyninga, þrym gefrūnon, hū ðā æþelingas ellen fremedon. Oft Scyld Scēfing sceaþena þrēatum, monegum mǣgþum, meodosetla oftēah, egsode eorlas. Syððan ǣrest wearð fēasceaft funden, hē þæs frōfre gebād, wēox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þāh, oðþæt him ǣghwylc þāra ymbsittendra ofer hronrāde hȳran scolde, gomban gyldan. þæt wæs gōd cyning! Which can be translated as: Lo, praise of the prowess of people-kings of spear-armed Danes, in days long sped, we have heard, and what honor the athelings won! Oft Scyld the Scefing from squadroned foes, from many a tribe, the mead-bench tore, awing the earls. Since erst he lay friendless, a foundling, fate repaid him: for he waxed under welkin, in wealth he throve, till before him the folk, both far and near, who house by the whale-path, heard his mandate, gave him gifts: a good king he! (translation by Francis Gummere) Here is a sample prose text, the beginning of The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. The full text is at Wikisource:Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader/The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan Ōhthere sǣde his hlāforde, Ælfrēde cyninge, ðæt hē ealra Norðmonna norþmest būde. Hē cwæð þæt hē būde on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsǣ. Hē sǣde þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þonan; ac hit is eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum styccemǣlum wīciað Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra, ond on sumera on fiscaþe be þǣre sǣ. Hē sǣde þæt hē æt sumum cirre wolde fandian hū longe þæt land noþryhte lǣge, oþþe hwæðer ǣnig mon be norðan þǣm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē norþryhte be þǣm lande: lēt him ealne weg þæt wēste land on ðæt stēorbord, ond þā wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord þrīe dagas. Þā wæs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwælhuntan firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā giet norþryhte swā feor swā hē meahte on þǣm ōþrum þrīm dagum gesiglau. Þā bēag þæt land, þǣr ēastryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt lond, hē nysse hwæðer, būton hē wisse ðæt hē ðǣr bād westanwindes ond hwōn norþan, ond siglde ðā ēast be lande swā swā hē meahte on fēower dagum gesiglan. Þā sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt land bēag þǣr sūþryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē nysse hwæþer. Þā siglde hē þonan sūðryhte be lande swā swā hē meahte on fīf dagum gesiglan. Ðā læg þǣr ān micel ēa ūp on þæt land. Ðā cirdon hīe ūp in on ðā ēa for þǣm hīe ne dorston forþ bī þǣre ēa siglan for unfriþe; for þǣm ðæt land wæs eall gebūn on ōþre healfe þǣre ēas. Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē from his āgnum hām fōr; ac him wæs ealne weg wēste land on þæt stēorbord, būtan fiscerum ond fugelerum ond huntum, ond þæt wǣron eall Finnas; ond him wæs āwīdsǣ on þæt bæcbord. Þā Boermas heafdon sīþe wel gebūd hiraland: ac hīe ne dorston þǣr on cuman. Ac þāra Terfinna land wæs eal wēste, būton ðǣr huntan gewīcodon, oþþe fisceras, oþþe fugeleras. This may be translated as: Ohthere said to his lord, King Alfred, that he of all Norsemen lived north-most. He quoth that he lived in the land northward along the North Sea. He said though that the land was very long from there, but it is all wasteland, except that in a few places here and there Finns [i.e. Sami] encamp, hunting in winter and in summer fishing by the sea. He said that at some time he wanted to find out how long the land lay northward or whether any man lived north of the wasteland. Then he traveled north by the land. All the way he kept the waste land on his starboard and the wide sea on his port three days. Then he was as far north as whale hunters furthest travel. Then he traveled still north as far as he might sail in another three days. Then the land bowed east (or the sea into the land— he didn’t know which). But he knew that he waited there for west winds (and somewhat north), and sailed east by the land so as he might sail in four days. Then he had to wait due-north winds, because the land bowed south (or the sea into the land—he didn’t know which). Then he sailed from there south by the land so as he might sail in three days. Then a large river lay there up into the land. Then they turned up into the river, because they dared not sail forth past the river for hostility, because the land was all settled on the other side of the river. He hadn’t encountered earlier any settled land since he traveled from his own home; but all the way waste land was on his starboard (except fishers, fowlers and hunters, who were all Finns). And the wide sea was always on his port. The Bjarmians have cultivated their land very well, but they did not dare go in there. But the Terfinn’s land was all waste except where hunters encamped, or fishers or fowlers. Middle English From The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, 14th century Here bygynneth the Book of the Tales of Caunterbury Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote The droghte of March hath perced to the roote And bathed every veyne in swich licour, Of which vertu engendred is the flour; Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in every holt and heeth The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne, And smale foweles maken melodye, That slepen al the nyght with open eye (So priketh hem Nature in hir corages); Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages Glossary:
From Paradise Lost by John Milton, 1667 Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, Heavenly Muse, that on the secret top Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed, In the beginning how the Heavens and Earth Rose out of chaos: or if Sion hill Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed Fast by the oracle of God, I thence Invoke thy aid to my adventurous song, That with no middle Flight intends to soar Above the Aonian mount, whyle it pursues Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme. Modern English Taken from Oliver Twist, 1838, by Charles Dickens The evening arrived; the boys took their places. The master, in his cook's uniform, stationed himself at the copper; his pauper assistants ranged themselves behind him; the gruel was served out; and a long grace was said over the short commons. The gruel disappeared; the boys whispered each other, and winked at Oliver; while his next neighbours nudged him. Child as he was, he was desperate with hunger, and reckless with misery. He rose from the table; and advancing to the master, basin and spoon in hand, said: somewhat alarmed at his own temerity: 'Please, sir, I want some more.' The master was a fat, healthy man; but he turned very pale. He gazed in stupefied astonishment on the small rebel for some seconds, and then clung for support to the copper. The assistants were paralysed with wonder; the boys with fear. 'What!' said the master at length, in a faint voice. 'Please, sir,' replied Oliver, 'I want some more.' The master aimed a blow at Oliver's head with the ladle; pinioned him in his arm; and shrieked aloud for the beadle. | |
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| 29-03-2008 | #7 (mesaj-linki) | |
| Cvp: English Language International English From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia International English is the concept of the English language as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and also the movement towards an international standard for the language. It is also referred to as Global English, World English, Common English, General English. Sometimes these terms refer simply to the array of varieties of English spoken throughout the world. Sometimes "international English" and the related terms above refer to a desired standardisation, i.e. Standard English; however, there is no consensus on the path to this goal.
The modern concept of International English does not exist in isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the English language. The English language evolved from a set of West Germanic dialects spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who arrived from the Continent in the 5th Century. Those dialects came to be known as Englisc (literally "Anglish"), the language today referred to as Anglo-Saxon or Old English (the language of the poem Beowulf). English is thus more closely related to West Frisian than to any other modern language, although less than a quarter of the vocabulary of Modern English is shared with West Frisian or other West Germanic languages because of extensive borrowings from Norse, Norman French, Latin, and other languages. It was during the Viking invasions of the Anglo-Saxon period that Old English was influenced by contact with Norse, a group of North Germanic dialects spoken by the Vikings, who came to control a large region in the North of England known as the Danelaw. Vocabulary items entering English from Norse (including the pronouns she, they, and them) are thus attributable to the on-again-off-again Viking occupation of Northern England during the centuries prior to the Norman Conquest (see, e.g., Canute the Great). Soon after the Norman Conquest of 1066, the Englisc language ceased being a literary language (see, e.g., Ormulum) and was replaced by Norman French as the written language of England. During the Norman Period, English absorbed a significant component of French vocabulary (approximately one-third of the vocabulary of Modern English) With this new vocabulary, additional vocabulary borrowed from Latin (with Greek, another approximately one-third of Modern English vocabulary, though some borrowings from Latin and Greek date from later periods), a simplified grammar, and use of the orthographic conventions of French instead of Old English othography, the language became Middle English (the language of Chaucer). The "difficulty" of English as a written language thus began in the High Middle Ages, when French orthographic conventions were used to spell a language whose original, more suitable orthography had been forgotten after centuries of nonuse. During the late medieval period, King Henry V of England (lived 1387-1422) ordered the use of the English of his day in proceedings before him and before the government bureaucracies. That led to the development of Chancery English, a standardized form used in the government bureaucracy. (The use of so-called Law French in English courts continued through the Renaissance, however.) The emergence of English as a language of Wales results from the incorporation of Wales into England and also dates from approximately this time period. Soon afterward, the development of printing by Caxton and others accelerated the development of a standardised form of English. Following a change in vowel pronunciation that marks the transition of English from the medieval to the Renaissance period, The language of the Chancery and Caxton became Early Modern English (the language of Shakespeare's day) and with relatively moderate changes eventually developed into the English language of today. Scots, as spoken in the lowlands and along the east coast of Scotland, developed independently from Modern English and is based on the Northern dialects of Anglo-Saxon, particularly Northumbrian, which also serve as the basis of Northern English dialects such as those of Yorkshire and Newcastle upon Tyne. Northumbria was within the Danelaw and therefore experienced greater influence from Norse than did the Southern dialects. As the political influence of London grew, the Chancery version of the language developed into a written standard across Great Britain, further progressing in the modern period as Scotland became united with England as a result of the Acts of Union of 1707. There have been two introductions of English to Ireland, a medieval introduction that led to the development of the now-extinct Yola dialect and a modern introduction in which Hibernian English largely replaced Irish as the most widely spoken language during the 19th Century, following the Act of Union of 1800. Received Pronunciation (RP) is generally viewed as a 19th Century development and is not reflected in North American English dialects, which are based on 18th Century English. The establishment of the first permanent English-speaking colony in North America in 1607 was a major step towards the globalisation of the language. British English was only partially standardised when the American colonies were established. Isolated from each other by the Atlantic Ocean, the dialects in England and the colonies began evolving independently. In the 19th century, the standardisation of British English was more settled than it had been in the previous century, and this relatively well-established English was brought to Africa, Asia and Oceania. It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on speakers of other languages in the various parts of the British Empire. The first form can be seen in New Zealand English, and the latter in Indian English. In Europe English received a more central role particularly since 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles was composed not only in French, the common language of diplomacy at the time, but also in English. The English-speaking regions of Canada and the Caribbean are caught between historical connections with the UK and the Commonwealth, and geographical and economic connections with the U.S. In some things, and more formally, they tend to follow British standards, whereas in others they follow the U.S. standard. Methods of promotion Unlike proponents of constructed languages, International English proponents face on the one hand the belief that English already is a world language (and as such, nothing needs to be done to promote it further) and, on the other, the belief that an international language would inherently need to be a constructed one (e.g., Esperanto in Chinese is generally just referred to as Shìjièyǔ (simplified Chinese: 世界语, traditional Chinese: 世界語), or "world language"). In such an environment, at least four basic approaches have been proposed or employed toward the further expansion or consolidation of International English, some in contrast with, and others in opposition to, methods used to advance constructed international auxiliary languages.
Braj Kachru divides the use of English into three concentric circles. The inner circle is the traditional base of English and includes countries such as the United Kingdom, Ireland and the United States, and, loosely, the (historically mainly white) former colonies: Australia, New Zealand, some islands of the Caribbean, and the anglophone population of Canada. (South Africa is regarded as a special case.) English is the native language or mother tongue of most people in these countries. In the outer circle are those countries where English has official or historical importance ("special significance"). This means most of the Commonwealth (the former British Empire), including populous countries such as India and Nigeria, and others under the American sphere of influence, such as the Philippines. Here English may serve as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups. Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national commerce and so on may all be carried out predominantly in English. The expanding circle refers to those countries where English has no official role, but nonetheless is important for certain functions, notably international business. This use of English as a lingua franca by now includes most of the rest of the world not categorised above. A recent development is the role of English as a lingua franca between speakers of the mutually intelligble Scandinavian languages (Danish, Norwegian and Swedish). Older generations of Scandinavians would use and understand each others' mother tongue without problems. However today's younger generations lack the same understanding and have begun using English as the language of choice[1]. Research on English as a Lingua Franca in the sense of "English in the Expanding Circle" is comparatively recent. Linguists who have been active in this field are Jennifer Jenkins, Barbara Seidlhofer, Christiane Meierkord and Joachim Grzega. English as a lingua franca in foreign language teaching See also: English language learning and teaching English as an additional language (EAL) usually is based on the standards of either American English or British English. English as an international language (EIL) is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to communicate internationally.[citation needed] Roger Nunn considers different types of competence in relation to the teaching of English as an International Language, arguing that linguistic competence has yet to be adequately addressed in recent considerations of EIL. [1]. Several models of "simplified English" have been suggested for teaching English as a foreign language:
Varying concepts Universality and flexibility International English sometimes refers to English as it is actually being used and developed in the world; as a language owned not just by native speakers, but by all those who come to use it. Basically, it covers the English language at large, often (but not always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard. It is certainly also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use, and study of English as the world's lingua franca ('TEIL: Teaching English as an International Language'), and especially when the language is considered as a whole in contrast with American English, British English, South African English, and the like. — McArthur (2002, p. 444–45)It especially means English words and phrases generally understood throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. The importance of non-native English language skills can be recognized behind the long-standing joke that the international language of science and technology is broken English. Neutrality International English reaches towards cultural neutrality. This has a practical use: "What could be better than a type of English that saves you from having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets! Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it an attractive idea — both often concerned that their English should be neutral, without American or British or Canadian or Australian coloring. Any regional variety of English has a set of political, social and cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called 'standard' forms." — Peters (2004, International English)According to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of English that minimizes the aspects defined by either the colonial imperialism of Victorian Britain or the so-called "cultural imperialism" of the 20th century United States. While British colonialism laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and British colonial influence. The development of International English often centers around academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative and flowery use of the language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general. Opposition The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by many as a kind of cultural imperialism, whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms. Robert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his Linguistic Imperialism (1992). Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English are in fact faced with the dual standard of American English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes (namely Australian and Canadian). Edward Trimnell, author of Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One (2005) argues that the international version of English is only adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that native English-speakers have become "dependent on the language skills of others" by placing their faith in international English. Appropriation theory There are also some who reject both linguistic imperialism and David Crystal's theory of the neutrality of English. They argue that the phenomenon of the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of appropriation (e.g. Spichtinger 2000), that is, English used for local purposes around the world. Demonstrators in non-English speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV-audiences around the globe, for instance. In English language teaching Bobda shows how Cameroon has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centered way of teaching English and has gradually appropriated teaching material to a Cameroonian context. Non Western-topics treated are, for instance, the rule of Emirs, traditional medicine or polygamy (1997:225). Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local Vietnamese culture. The Pakistani textbook "Primary Stage English" includes lessons such as "Pakistan My Country", "Our Flag", or "Our Great Leader" (Malik 1993: 5,6,7) which might well sound jingoistic to Western ears. Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between ELT, patriotism and Muslim faith is seen as one of the aims of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: "The board...takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the students] home lands" (Punjab Text Book Board 1997). Many Englishes There are many difficult choices that have to be made if there is to be further standardisation of English in the future. These include the choice over whether to adopt a current standard, or move towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International English might supplant both current American and British English as a variety of English for international communication, leaving these as local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard British English with admixture of other varieties of English and would generally replace all these varieties of English. We may, in due course, all need to be in control of two standard Englishes—the one which gives us our national and local identity, and the other which puts us in touch with the rest of the human race. In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in our own language. — David Crystal (1988: p. 265)This is the situation long faced by many users of English who possess a 'non-standard' dialect of English as their birth tongue but have also learned to write (and perhaps also speak) a more standard dialect. Many academics often publish material in journals requiring different varieties of English and change style and spellings as necessary without great difficulty. As far as spelling is concerned, the differences between American and British usage became noticeable due to the first influential lexicographers (dictionary writers) on each side of the Atlantic. Samuel Johnson's dictionary of 1755 greatly favoured Norman-influenced spellings such as centre and colour; on the other hand, Noah Webster's first guide to American spelling, published in 1783, preferred spellings like center and the Latinate color. The difference in strategy and philosophy of Johnson and Webster are largely responsible for the main division in English spelling that exists today. It must be said, however, that these differences are extremely minor. Spelling is but a small part of the differences between dialects of English, and may not even reflect dialect differences at all (except in phonetically spelled dialogue). International English refers to much more than an agreed spelling pattern. Dual standard Two approaches to International English are the individualistic and inclusive approach and the new dialect approach. The individualistic approach gives control to individual authors to write and spell as they wish (within purported standard conventions) and to accept the validity of differences. The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English, published in 1999, is a descriptive study of both American and British English in which each chapter follows individual spelling conventions according to the preference of the main editor of that chapter. The new dialect approach appears in The Cambridge Guide to English Usage (Peters, 2004) which attempts to avoid any language bias and accordingly uses an idiosyncratic international spelling system of mixed American and British forms (but tending to prefer the more phonetic American English spellings). | |
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| 29-03-2008 | #8 (mesaj-linki) | |
| Cvp: English Language Plain English From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Plain English (sometimes known, more broadly, as plain language) is a communication style that focuses on considering the audience's needs when writing. It recommends avoiding unnecessary words and avoiding jargon, technical terms, and long and ambiguous sentences.
Some practices that are claimed to make written communication clearer are: Use Subject-Verb-Object construction by default.For example, instead of this: To update (verb) the address lists (object) may be your primary concern (subject), you should use this: Your primary concern (subject) may be to update (verb) the address lists (object). Avoid vocabulary that a good portion of your audience will stumble over. This applies especially to jargon, when the idea can be expressed as well using conventional language. Use verbs instead of "nounisms."A nounism is a verb rendered in its nominal form. For example, use the verb "introduce" instead of "introduction." Compare: "Jim introduced the speaker" to "Jim gave an introduction of the speaker." Use active voice instead of passive.For example, use "The police stopped the suspect" instead of "The suspect was stopped by the police." Sometimes the passive hides who the agent is, which can reduce understandability. For example, "Thirty houses were visited in three weeks." Unless you don't know who visited the houses, or it's completely irrelevant, the active is better: "The family visited thirty houses in three weeks." Avoid overly-long sentences.By the time you get to the end of some sentences, you have forgotten what came earlier in the sentence. The following sentence combines two poor choices - long, complicated words that serve no purpose, and excessive length: "If there exist any points on which you require explanation or further explication, we shall be glad to furnish such additional details as may be required via telephone." The following is better: "If you have any questions, please call us."Important Influences In the late 19th century, several writers (e.g. Mark Twain) demonstrated that plain English could be elegant when executed properly. During the 1920s, such style guides as William Strunk Jr.'s The Elements of Style[1] actively promoted the idea of writing in plain English. However, it took over fifty years for Strunk's ideas to become widely accepted. Plain English finally penetrated the fields of law and government during the 1970s, as shown by the passage of the Paperwork Reduction Act[2] of 1976, and the popularity of books like Plain English for Lawyers, 1979 (ISBN 978-0890899946). Aesthetics A sentence written using plain English may be aesthetically pleasing, even if its style is not complicated and it does not incorporate irrelevance. Everything in the sentence should work towards communicating to the reader what the writer intended. Everything else should be deleted or streamlined. Plain English is efficient but not brutally so. In fact, it is an act of kindness to the reader, sparing them from confusion and from having to read unnecessary words. A criticism, however, is that the requirement to use a limited vocabulary actually means that what is communicated is not, in fact, what was intended. This is especially the case in times of reducing literacy, and simplified language skills. | |
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| 29-03-2008 | #9 (mesaj-linki) | |
| Cvp: English Language Special English From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Special English is a simplified version of the English language first used on October 19, 1959 and presently employed by the United States broadcasting service Voice of America in daily broadcasts. [1] The news is read slowly, using a limited vocabulary (about 1500 words) and simplified grammar. There is a short pause between adjacent words so that word boundaries are easily discerned. The intended audience of Special English are people who have studied English in school, but do not speak it in daily usage. For example, an April 2002 script describes diabetes in this manner: "The World Health Organization estimates that as many as one-hundred-twenty-million people have the disease diabetes. Diabetes is the name for several diseases with one thing in common: there is too much glucose, or sugar, in the blood. The disease develops when the body does not produce enough insulin or produces no insulin. Or the disease develops when the body cannot use insulin." Another script talks about the Rolling Stones: "The popularity of the Beatles led the way for more rock and roll bands from England to become popular in America. The Rolling Stones was the most important of these bands. The Rolling Stones is one of the few groups from the nineteen-sixties that is still performing and recording today. In nineteen sixty-five, the group recorded one of its most famous songs, 'Satisfaction'." For those listeners whose own language is not English, it not only provides clear and simple news and information, but also helps them improve their use of American English. In some countries such as the People's Republic of China, Special English is increasingly popular for junior and intermediate English learners. Specialized English is a dialect of Special English developed initially by Feba Radio and now used internationally in the Spotlight radio program produced by Feba Radio, Words of Hope and The Back to God Hour. The same parameters apply as for Special English - slow speed, short sentences and restricted vocabulary. The vocabulary (word list) is over 90% identical to that of VoA Special English. The BBC and China Radio International have both used the name 'Special English' for slow speed English broadcasts, but they do not appear to have applied the full methodology of the VoA original. | |
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| 25-05-2008 | #10 (mesaj-linki) | |
| Modals -Kipler Modallar yüklemin havasını, modunu belirtmek için kullanılan kiplerdir. Yüklemleri her zaman V1 durumundadır. Zaman zaman continuous olurlar. Modals : Can, Could, May, Might, Should, Ought to, Must, Would, Will, Shall Semi-modals : Dare, Need, Have to, Used to Others : had better, be supposed to, be used to, be accustomed to etc. CAN ABILITY (Yeterlilik) (present) She can design well. IMPOSSIBILITY (İmkansızlık) That cannot be Tom - He is in New York now. POSSIBILITY (Olasılık) (present) Smoking can cause cancer. Perhaps we can meet next week. REQUEST (rica, istek) [Can I… ] OFFER (öneri) [Can I…] PERMISSION (İzin isteme / verme) Can I have some cake please? Can I help you with those bags? “Can I leave the class early?” “Yes, sure” ORDER (kızarak birşey yapmasını isteme) If you carry on being horrible to your sister, Sophie, you can just go to bed! (Kızkardeşine kötü davranmaya devam edeceksen, doğru yatağa-gidebilirsin-) SUGGESTION (tavsiye) You can try another store, if you want. DISBELIEF (İnanamama) [can’t] You cannot mean that. You must be kidding. (Bunu kastediyor olamazsın. Şaka yapıyor olmalısın) INAPPROPRIACY/INACCURACY (Uygunsuzluk) [can’t] You can’t wear that dress. It is indecent. (Bu elbiseyi giyemezsin. Uygun/saygın değil.) You cannot really call this small knife a gun. (Bu küçücük bıçağa bir silah diyemezsin/demen uygun değil.) CAN’T HAVE V3 IMPOSSIBILITY (İmkansızlık) (Past) That cannot have been Tom because we knew he had gone to New York. (PAST) (Bunu yapmış olan Tom olamazdı, çünkü biliyorduk ki Tom New York’a gitmişti.) NOT : Yeterlilik (ability) belirten CAN modalının kullanılamadığı yerlerde to be able to kullanılabilir. To be able to sing well was not sufficient enough to make her famous singer. [to infinitive] Will she be able to cope with the work? [future tense] He's never been able to admit his mistakes. [present perfect tense] I'm sorry that I wasn't able to phone you yesterday. [past tense] It's so wonderful being able to see the sea from my window. [gerund] Can’t be doing with ST/ SB : Katlanamamak I cannot be doing with people who complain all time. (Sürekli şikayet eden insanlarla yapamam/insanlara katlanamam) COULD ABILITY (Yeterlilik) (Past) She could play the guitar well when she was 7. POSSIBILITY (olasılık) (Present) We could get married by next year. (Gelecek yıl evlenebiliriz) REQUEST (Kibar rica) [Could you…] Could you lend me £5? PERMISSION (izin) [Could I…] “Could I use your phone?” “Yes you could.” You said we could watch television when we've finished our homework. SUGGESTION (öneri) We could have dinner, if you like. (Eğer istersen akşam yemek yiyebiliriz.) NECESSITY (gereklilik) Well, you could try to look a little more enthusiastic! (Pekala, biraz daha istekli görünmeye çalışabilirsin) COULD HAVE V3 IM/POSSIBILITY (olasılık) (Past) You couldn’t have left your bag on the bus, could you? (Çantanı otobüste unutmuş olamazsın, değil mi?) They told me that they had not received the letter yet. I could have sent the letter to a wrong address. POSSIBILITY (olasılık) (Future) By this time next week, I could have left for Washington. (Gelecek hafta bu vakit itibariyle Washington’a doğru yola çıkmış olabilirim) POSSIBILITY which didn’t happen (Gerçekleşmemiş olasılık) (Past) We could/might have gone to Spain last year, but we went to Alanya instead. (Geçen yıl İspanya’ya gidebilirdik ama yerine Alanya’ya gittik.) NECESSITY (gereklilik) I waited ages for you - you could've said that you weren't coming! (Ağaç oldum – gelmeyeceğini söyleyebilirdin) COULD and WAS ABLE TO (=MANAGED TO) Olumsuz cümlelerde aralarında fark olmasa da, olumlu cümlelerde BE ABLE TO ve/veya MANAGED TO ile COULD arasında kullanımlarında tercİh edİlme yerlerİ açısından farklar vardır: a) Şu yüklemlerle hemen her zaman COULD: see, hear, smell, taste, feel, remember, understand We had a lovely room in the hotel. We could see the lake. b) Geçmişteki genel yetenek veya izin durumunda COULD (general ability or permission in the past): My grandfather could speak five languages. (general ability) We were totally free. We could do what we wanted. (general permission) c) Özel durumlarda (special situation), cümle pozitif ise WAS ABLE TO veya MANAGED TO: The fire spread through the building very quickly, but fortunately everybody was able to / managed to escape. (not could) The fire spread through the building very quickly, unfortunately many peeople couldn’t / was not able to escape. (in negative sentences both are possible) COULD DO WITH ST= need ST Your hair could do with a wash. (present) (Saçlarının yıkanmaya ihtiyacı var) Your hair could have done with a wash yesterday.(past) (Saçlarının yıkanmaya ihtiyacı vardı) MAY/MIGHT POSSIBILITY (Olasılık) (present OR future) I’ll write the date of the meeting in my diary, otherwise I may/might forget. REQUEST (rica) (present) [May I] OFFER (Teklif) PERMISSION (İzin isteme-verme) May/might I use your phone? May/Might I drive you home? (Sizi eve bırakabilir miyim?) “May/Might I come in?” “You may come in if you want.” SUGGESTION (Öneri, tavsiye) I thought we might/may go to the zoo on Saturday. (Düşündüm de Cumartesileri hayvanat bahçesine gidebiliriz) MAY/MIGHT HAVE V3 POSSIBILITY (Olasılık) (PAST) She did not come to work yesterday. She may/might have been ill. (Dün işe gelmedi. Herhalde hastaydı.) POSSIBILITY (Olasılık) (FUTURE) By next Friday I may/might/could have completed the report. (Gelecek cumaya kadar raporumu tamamlayabilirim) POSSIBILITY which didn’t happen (Gerçekleşmemiş olasılık) (PAST) The plan might/could easily have gone wrong, but in fact it was a great success. NOT: 1. May/Might I yaygın bir kullanımken, May/Might you şeklinde bir kullanım yoktur. 2. MAY / MIGHT (JUST) AS WELL madem öyle, yapmaktan bir kaybımız olmaz, yapalım bari anlamında kullanılır. We have missed the bus. The next one comes next hour. We may as well walk. If no one else wants this book we might as well give it to him. 3. may/might be Ving a) şu andaki ihtimal Don’t phone him right now. Their new-born baby may/might be sleeping. b) gelecek için olası plan I may/might be going to Ireland in July. 4. May SB/ST do ST temenni, dua olarak kullanılır, devrik yapıdadır. May God help you! (Tanrı sana yardım etsin) May she rest in peace! (Huzur içinde yatsın) 5. Be that as it may = nevertheless, however I know that he was tried hard; be that as it may, his work is just not good enough. (Biliyorum çok çabaladı ama basitçe söylemek gerekirse yaptığı iş yeterince iyi değil.) MUST NECESSITY (Zorunluluk-Gereklilik) (PRESENT) You must be here by 10 o’clock. (=It’s necessary that you be here by 10 o’clock. ) I must wash the car tomorrow. You must wear these socks. PROHIBITION (Yasaklama) You must not wear these socks. You must not smoke in the classroom. It’s strictly forbidden. CONCLUSION (Sonuç çıkarma) After that long walking you must be tired now. SUGGESTION (Tavsiye) He’s very smart. You must meet him. FRUSTRATION, ANNOYANCE (Öfke, kızgınlık) Must the media exaggerate so much? (Medya bu kadar abartmak zorunda mı?) MUST HAVE V3 CONCLUSION (Sonuç çıkarma) John looks very tired this morning. He must not have slept last night. (John yorgun görünüyor. Dün gece uyumamış olmalı). She got here very quickly. She must have walked very fast. HAVE (GOT) TO NECESSITY (Zorunluluk-Gereklilik) (PRESENT) What time have you got to be there? Do we have to finish this today? [present] We'll have to start keeping detailed records. [future] Jackie's ill so they've had to change their plans. [p. perf.] Comparison: MUST vs. HAVE TO MUST daha çok bireysel zorunluluklar ile ilgilenmekteyken HAVE TO Dışarıdan gelen, resmi, kurumsal zorunluluk ile ilgilenir. Ancak HAVE TO’nun her iki anlam için de kullanılması gittikçe yerleşmekte ve özellikle Amerikan İngilizcesinde MUST deyince akla ilk olarak sonuç çıkarma (conclusion) gelmektedir. Nurses have to wear a uniform. [hastane düzeni] Nurses must wear the same uniform. [birden fazla üniformalarının olması kafa karıştırıyor] I have to collect the children from school at 3 o’clock. [okulun dağılma vakti saat 3] I must collect the children. [Eşimin işi vardı, dolayısıyla ben almalıyım] NOTLAR: must [informal] zorunluluk anlamında bir isim If you live in the country a car is a must. (Şehirde yaşıyorsan araba bir zorunluluk) a must-do/-have/-see, etc. [informal] olmazsa olmaz anlamında The cashmere scarf is this season's must-have. (Kaşmir eşarp bu mevsimin olmazsa olmazı) It's a moderately entertaining film but it's certainly not a must-see. (Orta seviyede eğlenceli bir film fakat kesinlikle bir “illaki seyredilmeli” değil.) SHOULD /OUGHT TO DUTY, RESPONSIBILITY (görev, sorumluluk) "Should I apologize to him?" "Yes, I think you should." You should be ashamed of yourselves. NECESSITY (gereklilik) There should/ought to be an investigation into the cause of the disaster. This computer isn't working as it should/ought to SUGGESTION You should / ought to give him a chance. PROBABILITY I enjoyed the first novel, so the new one should / ought to be good. UNHAPPENED EXPECTATION : (PRESENT) gerçekleşmemiş beklenti. [should be Ving] She should be preparing the breakfast now. But she is sleeping instead. (Şu anda kahvaltı hazırlıyor olmalıydı ama onun yerine uyuyor). OFFER, ASKING APPROVAL (teklifte bulunma, onay isteme) [Should we or I] It's rather cold in here. Should/Shall I (= Do you want me to) turn the heating on? Shall/should I put these books over there? If, in case, for fear that veya lest cümlelerinde LESS POSSIBILITY (düşük ihtimal) If you should change your mind, let me know. (Fikrini değiştirisen haberim olsun) Should anyone call, please tell them I’m busy. (Birileri ararsa, lütfen meşgul olduğumu söyleyin) In case you should need my help, here is my number. (İşte numaram, olur ya yardımıma ihtiyacın olur.) She gripped her son’s arm lest he should be trampled by the mob. (Kalabalıkta çiğnenmesin diye oğlunun kolunu sıkıca tutu.) SURPRISE (şaşırma) I was just getting off the bus when who should I see but my old school friend Pat! (Tam otöbüsten iniyordum ki kimi göreyim, eski okul arkadaşım Pat) SHOULD HAVE V3 NECESSITY (gerçekleşmemiş gereklilik-sorumluluk-yükümlülük) (PAST) I had a test this morning. I did not do well. I should have studied last night. (Dün gece çalışmam gerekirdi.) My back hurts. I should not have carried that heavy box. (Sırtım ağrıyor. O ağır kutuyu taşımam gerekirdi.) EXPECTATION (beklenti) (FUTURE) The builders should/ought to have finished by the end of the week. (İnşaatçılar hafta sonu itibariyle işlerini bitirmiş olurlar / diye bekliyorum SURPRISE (şaşırma) You should have seen her face when she found out we were kidding. (Şaka yaptığımızı farkettiğinde yüzünün halini görmeliydin.) EXTRAS a) British English’te I ve WE’den sonra would yerine [FORMAL and RARE] I should like a whisky before I go to bed. (=I would like a whisky…) b) That clausedan önce, tavsiye, aciliyet veya önem belirten bir yüklem, bir isim veya bir sıfat varsa that clause’un yüklemi her koşulda “bare infinitive” olur veya önüne SHOULD gelir. Bkz. SUBJUNCTIVE She recommended that Mr. Smith (should) take some time off. In order that training (should) be effective it must be planned systematically. c) OUGHT TO bitişiktir. Geçmişi OUGHT TO HAVE V3 şeklinde yapılır. NOT ought ile to arasındadır. Such things ought not to be allowed. [ought not to] He oughtn’t to have been driving so far. [ought not to have V3] d) HAD BETTER +V1 Tavsiye belirten should gibidir. Ancak daha informal bir kullanıma sahiptir. You had better wear this suit. (Bu takımı giysen daha iyi olur.) You had better not drink any more. You will drive. (içmesen daha iyi olur; araba kullanacaksın) e) TO BE SUPPOSED TO DO beklenti belirten should gibidir. Daha resmidir, özellikle tarifeli (scheduled) eylemler için kullanılır. PAST olduğunda beklentinin gerçekleşmemiş olduğu anlaşılır: The game is supposed to begin at 10:00. (Oyunun 10’da başlaması gerekiyor) Jack was supposed to call me last night. I wonder why he didn’t. (Jack’in dün beni araması gerekiyordu. Acaba niye aramadı?) NEED LACK OF NECESSITY (serbestlik, zorunluluk olmama hali) I can hear you. You needn’t / don’t need to / don’t have to shout. “Must I go?” “No, you needn’t.” veya “Yes, you must” NECESSITY (gereklilik zorunluluk) (PRESENT) I don't think we need / need to ask him. “Need I go?” “No, you needn’t.” veya “Yes, you must.” NEED + Ving (zorunluluk, pasif) This room needs brightening up a bit. The batteries in the radio need changing. = (The batteries need to be changed.) NEEDN’T HAVE V3 IN SOMETHING NOT NECESSARY, BUT DONE (gerekmediği halde yapilmiş şeylerde) [PAST] He needn’t have taken the umbrella (=He took the umbrella, but this was not necessary) NOT: NEEDN’T HAVE DONE ile DIDN’T NEED TO DO farklı anlamdadırlar. NEEDN’T HAVE DONE yapılması gerekmediği halde yapılmış olan işlerde kullanılır. Karşılaştınız: He needn’t have taken the umbrella. (=He took the umbrella, but this was not necessary) He didn’t need to take the umbrella. (=He did not take the umbrella as it was not necessary) He didn’t have to take the umbrella. (=He did not take the umbrella as it was not necessary) • It was Sunday I didn’t need to get up early. So I slept till 12 o’clock. • It was Sunday. I needn’t have got up early but I woke up at 7 o’clock since I had totally forgotten that it was Sunday. WILL FUTURE (Gelecek zaman) Clare will be five years old next month. The train leaves at 8.58, so we'll be in Scotland by lunchtime. I'll see him tomorrow./I'll be seeing him tomorrow. It won't be easy to find another secretary. There'll be trouble when she finds out. WILLINGNESS (gönüllülük) I'll give you a lift. (Sizi ben bırakırım) Ask Ian if he'll take the package. (Ian’a paketi almak isteyip istemediğini sorar mısın?) The car won't start. (Çalışmaz bu araba) REQUEST/INVITATION Will you give that to Tony when you see him, please? Will you join us for a drink, Evie? CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (Type I) If he's late again, I'll be very angry. ORDER with anger or threat (kızgınlık veya tehdit taşıyan emirler) Will you stop being such a pain! You'll go upstairs and you'll go straight to bed like your father told you! CERTAINTY (kesinlik) a) ALWAYS (her zaman veya genellikle öyle olan olaylarda) Accidents will happen. Fruit will keep longer in the fridge. The product with the better-known brand name will always sell better. She's 85 now, but she will insist on doing all her own housework. CERTAINTY (kesinlik) b) LIKELY (yüksek olasılıktaki tahminlerde) That'll be Scott at the door. That'll be his mother with him. As you will all probably already know, election day is next week. WILL HAVE V3 CERTAINTY (gelecekte belirli bir zamanda olacak veya tamamlanacak işlerde) By the time we get there, Jim will have left. SHALL FUTURE (Gelecek zaman) If you do that one more time, I shall be very cross. I shall never forget you. (söz) So we'll see you at the weekend, shall we (= is that right)? I'm afraid I shall not/shan't be able to come to your party. (kanaat) Don't worry, I shall be there to meet the train. (söz) WILLINGNESS (gönüllülük) We shall (= intend to) let you know as soon as there's any news. SUGGEST (öneri, teklif) [Shall I/we…] a) SHALL I / SHALL WE b) LET’s…, SHALL WE? a) Shall we go out for dinner tonight? Shall I pick the children up from school today? b) Let’s go by car, shall we? “Shall we hire a car?” “Yes let’s” or “No, let’s not” ASKING ADVICE [Esp BrE] What shall I wear to the party? CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (Type I) If he's late again, I'll be very angry. CERTAIN ORDER (kesin emirlerde) The school rules state that no child shall be allowed out of the school during the day, unless accompanied by an adult. (FORMAL) You shall go to the ball, Cinderella. DARE CESARET ETMEK (Çoğunlukla olumsuz cümlelerde kullanılır. Olumsuz cümlelerde yüklemden önceki TO atılabilir.) She dare not complain. (modal) She doesn’t dare (to) complain. (yüklem) I daren't/don't dare think how much it's going to cost. Everyone in the office complains that he smells awful, but nobody dares (to) mention it to him. BU NE CESARET [how dare...] How dare you! (Bu ne cürret, bu ne cesaret!) How dare you read my diary!(Ne cesaretle günlüğümü okursun?) How dare he tell me what to do! CHALLANGE (Olumlu cümlelerde, HOW soruları hariç, meydan okumak anlamındadır.) “Why did he try to cross the river when the ice was so thin?” “Another boy dared him to do it.” Wear the low-cut blouse with your pink shorts - go on, I dare you! NOT: DARESAY suppose (sanırım, galiba) anlamında I daresay they’ll serve us on the plane. (Sanırım bize uçakta servis yapacak) WOULD FUTURE in PAST (geçmişteki gelecek) [past of WILL] He said he would be here at 8 o’clock. (8’de burda olacağını söylemişti) She hoped (that) we would come to her party.(Partisine geleceğimizi umuyordu.) I thought that he would refuse your invitation. (Davetini reddedeceğini sanıyordum.) WILLINGNESS (gönüllülük) She would not help me. (She refused to help) The car would not start. (It refused to start) POLITE REQUEST a) [Would you...] Would you please pass the salt? POLITE REQUEST b) WOULD YOU MIND... “Would you mind if I left early?” “No, please” “Would you mind leaving early?” “No, please” POLITE REQUEST c) IF YOU (JUST) WOULD... If you would sign the register (Please sign it) If you’d just put your address on that back of the cheque. (Please write your address on its back.) with CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (Type II) She would look better if she had shorter hair. (=She would look better with shorter hair.) (If I were you,) I would go on foot. (Yerinde olsam yürürdüm) with WISH CLAUSES I wish you would be quiet for a minute. (Keşke 1 dakikalığına sussan.) PAST HABIT (geçmişte kalmış alışkanlık) Weekends we would/used to cycle to the beach. (Hafta sonları sahile bisikletle giderdik.) I used to have a Mercedes. (Burada would kullanamayız.) Whenever we went to my Uncle Frank’s house, we would/used to play in the garden. WOULD RATHER / WOULD SOONER / WOULD JUST AS SOON 1) With a verb: [would rather do ST] (present) [would rather have done] (past) Yüklem yalın halde I would rather read than walk. [PRESENT] (=I prefer reading to walking.) We went by air, although I would rather have gone by sea. [PAST] 2.a) With a sentence, present time: [would rather SB did ST] kasıt PRESENT ama cümle simple past I’d rather he went by bus. (present) (=I prefer him to go by bus.) 2.b) With a sentence, past: [would rather SB had done ST] kasıt PAST ama cümle past perfect My friend took me to the student opera. I’d rather he had taken me to the theater instead. NOTE: WOULD RATHER reported speech’te değişmez. He said, “I’d rather go by bus.” He said he’d rather go by bus. WOULD LIKE / PREFER / LOVE = want WOULD HATE = don’t want a) kendilerinden sonra isim gelir Would you like a sandwich? [Would you like ST] Tom would like a lift today. (Present) Would you like coffee or would you prefer tea? [would like ST] b) kendilerinden sonra yüklem geldiğinde yüklem TO alır. Would you like to come this way please? (Please come this way?) Would you like to have a cup of coffee? [Would you like to do ST] I would prefer to stay at home tonight rather than go to the cinema. [I would prefer to do ST than do ST] If you would like to go concert I will get a ticket. [would like to do NOT 1: Geçmişleri WANTED veya DIDN’T WANT şeklinde yapılır: Tom would like a lift now. Tom wanted a lift yesterday. (Past) NOT 2: Bu yapıların perfectleri [would like to have done] unreal bir durum belirtir. I would like to have written to him. (But this was not possible) I would have liked a day off. (But I did not get it) NOT 3: WOULD PREFER “to V1” Would Rather ise “to” olmaksızın “V1” alır. I’m tired. I’d rather not go out tonight. I’m tired. I’d prefer to stay at home tonight. WOULD HAVE V3 with CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (Type III) I would have applied the job, if I had seen the advertisement. (İlanı görseydim işe başvururdum) USED TO ise bir semi-modaldır Geçmişteki alışkanlığı ifade eder. Olumsuzu Used not to/ usedn’t/ didn’t use to ile yapılmaktadır. En yaygın olarak didn’t use to tercih edilir. Didn’t used to da kullanılmakta ama yanlış kabul edilmektedir. We used to have a railway station. But they closed it down. BE/GET USED TO ST/ DOING ST (alışkın olmak, be kısmı çeşitli zamanlarda çekimli olabilir) I’m used to weather in this country. [be used to ST] I’m used to driving on the left since I’ve been living in England for 5 years. [be used to doing ST] I was used to driving on the left when I was in England for 5 years. I think I will be used to living in this city in 5 years. I can get used to seeing your face. (joke) ( Yüzünü görmeye alışabilirim.) BE/GET ACCUSTOMED TO ST / DOING ST BE FAMILIAR WITH TO ST / DOING ST= (alışkın/aşina olmak) I’m accustomed to tradition in this part of the world. Are you familiar with the computer software they use? NOT: GONNA= going to, GOTTA= have got to, WANNA= want to Kod: Alıntıdır... | |
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